01 Read the following passage and complete the exercises that follow.

 The History of Fitness

Lance C. Dalleck, M.S. and Len Kravitz, Ph.D.

Introduction

As we enter the 21st century, one of the greatest accomplishments to be celebrated is the continuous pursuit of fitness since the beginning of man's existence. Throughout prehistoric times, man's quest for fitness has been driven by a desire to survive through hunting and gathering. Today, though no longer driven by subsistence requirements, fitness remains paramount to health and well-being. This article will highlight historical events and influential individuals who have shaped the history of fitness beginning with primitive man up to the foundation of the modern fitness movement.

Primitive man and fitness (pre-10,000 B.C)

Primitive nomadic lifestyles required the continual task of hunting and gathering food for survival. Tribes commonly went on one- or two-day hunting journeys for food and water. Regular physical activity apart from that necessary for hunting and gathering was also a principal component of life. Following successful hunting and gathering excursions, celebration events included trips of six to 20 miles to neighboring tribes to visit friends and family, where dancing and cultural games could often last several hours. This Paleolithic pattern of subsistence pursuit and celebration, demanding a high level of fitness and consisting of various forms of physical activity, defined human life.

Ancient Chinese Civilization (2500-250 B.C.)

In China, the philosophical teachings of Confucius encouraged participation in regular physical activity. It was recognized that physical inactivity was associated with certain diseases (referred to as organ malfunctions and internal stoppages, which sound similar to heart disease and diabetes). Consequently, Kong Fu gymnastics was developed to keep the body in good, working condition. Kong Fu exercise programs consisted of various stances and movements, characterized by separate foot positions and imitations of different animal fighting styles. In addition to Kong Fu gymnastics, other forms of physical activity existed throughout ancient China including archery, badminton, dancing, fencing, and wrestling.

Ancient Greek Civilization (2500-200 B.C.)

Perhaps no other civilization has held fitness in such high regard as ancient Greece. The idealism of physical perfection was one that embodied ancient Greek civilization. The Greeks believed development of the body was equally as important as development of the mind. Physical well-being was necessary for mental well-being, with the need for a strong, healthy body to harbor a sound mind. Gymnastics, along with music, was considered to be the most important classroom topic. A common saying in ancient Greek times was "exercise for the body and music for the soul".

National Period in Europe (1700-1850)

Continental Europe underwent numerous cultural changes following the Renaissance. Fitness remained important and continued to follow trends initiated during the Renaissance. Physical education programs expanded within emerging nations of Europe. Intense feelings for nationalism and independence created the atmosphere for the first modern fitness movement, which came in the form of gymnastics programs. Gymnastics enjoyed immense popularity during this era, becoming especially prevalent in some countries such as Great Britain.

Within Great Britain, medical student Archibald Maclaren spread the word on the benefits of fitness and regular exercise. Marclaren made several observations based on his work, which are remarkably similar to present-day exercise recommendations. Firstly, Marclaren believed the cure for weariness and stress was physical action. Secondly, he noted recreational exercise found in games and sport was not sufficient for attaining adequate fitness levels. Finally, Marclaren realized both growing boys and girls required regular physical exercise. Marclaren also recognized the need for individual variation in fitness training programs.

United States (1865-1960s)

One of the most important events with respect to modern fitness in the United States was the Industrial Revolution, which resulted in widespread cultural changes throughout the country. Advancement in industrial and mechanical technologies replaced labor-intensive jobs. Rural life changed to an urban lifestyle. The new city life generally required less movement and work compared to rural life, consequently decreasing levels of physical activity.

At the turn of the century, the most common causes of death were from influenza, polio, rubella, and other infectious diseases. Risk of disease and mortality from infectious diseases were alleviated with the discovery of Penicillin. The cost of industrialization and urbanization became glaringly apparent starting in the 1950s and 1960s. An epidemic of hypokinetic diseases including cardiovascular disease, cancer, and Type II diabetes, never before prevalent, began to be recognized as the leading causes of disease and death. The lifestyle improvements brought in part by the Industrial Revolution had apparently come with an unwanted and alarming cost to health.

Important contributions to fitness came during the 1940s, specifically from Dr. Thomas K. Cureton at the University of Illinois. Cureton not only recognized the numerous benefits of regular exercise, he strived to expand the body of knowledge regarding physical fitness. Among his most important contributions were developing fitness tests for cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, and flexibility. His research resulted in multiple recommendations for the improvement of cardiorespiratory fitness, including the identification of exercise intensity guidelines necessary for improved fitness levels. His suggestions became the fundamental basis behind future exercise programs.

President John F. Kennedy was a major proponent of fitness and its health-related benefits to the American people. He furthered the development of the Presidents Council on Youth Fitness, appointing Bud Wilkinson as head of the council. The name was also changed to the President's Council on Physical Fitness. Kennedy's commitment to fitness can best be summarized when he said, "Physical fitness is the basis for all other forms of excellence."

Dr. Ken H. Cooper, widely recognized as "The Father of the Modern Fitness Movement", is generally credited with encouraging more individuals to exercise than any other individual in history. Cooper advocated a philosophy that shifted away from disease treatment to one of disease prevention. "It is easier to maintain good health through proper exercise, diet, and emotional balance than it is to regain it once it is lost" he said. Early in his career, Cooper stressed the necessity for providing epidemiological data to support the benefits of regular exercise and health. Data from thousands of individuals became the foundation for his aerobic concepts. Aerobics, released in 1968, sent a powerful message to the American people-to prevent the development of chronic diseases, exercise regularly and maintain high fitness levels throughout life. Dr. Cooper's message, programs and ideas established the model from which fitness has proliferated up to modern time.

Lessons From History

The history of fitness portrays some fascinating themes that relate closely to the 21st century. One commonality is the strong association of political might with physical fitness throughout mankind's advancement. In many ways, this shows how impacting our world leaders can be on health and fitness.

The mind-body concept has had a tenuous development. At times, some cultures prescribed spirituality at the expense of the body where as others, such as Greek society, upheld the ideal a sound mind can only be found in a healthy body.

Another interesting development from history is the concept of exercise for the body and music for the soul. Present day fitness programs have evolved this concept harmoniously, with music being a distinctive component to the exercise experience.

It appears that as societies become too enamored with wealth, prosperity and self-entertatinment that fitness levels drop. In addition, as technology has advanced with man, the levels of physical fitness have decreased. History offers little insight how to prevent or turnaround these recourses. Thus, this is a resolution we are challenged with in today's society. Perhaps utilizing all of the extensive research completed on health and fitness in combination with the creative minds now in the fitness industry, we now can solve this part of the fitness puzzle.

 (Source: https://www.unm.edu/~lkravitz/Article%20folder/history.html)

02 Read the following passage and then check your understanding.

 Torment of Eating Disorders, Self-image Growing

By CHEN NAN

Experts see cases of extreme weight loss and gain as cause for concern

During the worst stage of her eating disorder three years ago, Zhang Qinwen, who stands 1.64 meters tall, weighed just 28 kilograms.

One day, she was taken to the hospital after suddenly fainting on a street in Shanghai. She didn't have the strength to take a single step, let alone get into a vehicle without help.

Just 22 years old at the time, Zhang was experiencing fatigue, hair loss and irregular menstrual periods. Her parents were extremely worried about her.

During her time in the hospital, Zhang wrote accounts of her battle with the eating disorder and shared them on social media platforms, receiving warm feedback from those with similar problems.

Since 2019, Zhang has devoted herself to public events, such as workshops, and she also makes films, which have put her in touch with people with eating disorders.

Her problems began in 2016, when she was a university student in Shanghai and turned to the internet for advice on watching her weight. She went to great lengths each day to burn calories-exercising for three hours and monitoring her diet by using weight-watcher apps.

Her weight soon dropped from 98kg to 83kg. Zhang continued to follow a strict diet and meticulously counted the calories she consumed every day, but then matters went out of control.

"I was involved in a constant tug of war with myself. Even though I realized I was thin, I didn't dare eat. It scared me to even think of eating," said Zhang, who was forced to suspend her schooling twice due to her health. "The issue was more psychological than physical," she added.

Now, one year into recovery, Zhang has launched and curated an exhibition being held at the Shanghai Himalayas Museum from May 14 to June 14 — the first of its kind in China to center on eating disorders and body shaming, the act of deriding or mocking a person's physical appearance.

More than 40 items, including installations, paintings, photographs and poems, which Zhang collected from over 30 professional artists and amateurs through social media platforms, are on display at the exhibition.

The event has also attracted people with eating disorders, who share their stories. When it opened last month, these people held a collective wedding ceremony with each participant wearing a white veil.

Zhang, 25, who was born and raised in Shanghai, said, "We wanted to say that we were ‘marrying’ ourselves first before we could love others."

Her weight has now risen to about 60kg, she has not taken any medication relating to her diet for a year and is ready to finish university next year.

"As survivors, we want to raise awareness of eating disorders and body shaming, as well as give hope to people who are experiencing such problems. We want to tell them they are not alone and that everything will be fine," Zhang said.

Bad situation

When Wang Li, a university student in Shanghai, went to see a doctor after experiencing irregular periods, the medic told her, "You are just 20 years old, but you have the uterus of a 5-year-old girl and the ovaries of a 55-year-old postmenopausal woman."

Wang, who shared her story at the exhibition of being a patient with anorexia, said, "I realized my situation was bad and I was determined to overcome it."

Her problems began when her boyfriend broke up with her three years ago after telling her, "You are a bit fat".

Wang decided to lose weight, which she believed would help her regain confidence. She consumed fewer than 800 calories a day, much less than the amount required for a female adult's basic metabolism. She also exercised for two hours every day.

"The eating disorder felt like a scar in my heart, and I had to do something to stop it bleeding," Wang said.

Zhang said that in recent years she has seen an increasing number of people experiencing issues such as eating disorders and body shaming.

From the messages she received on her social media accounts, she noticed more young people, including teenagers of both genders, voicing concerns about eating disorders and body shaming.

"They told me they started to lose weight because everyone at their schools was constantly talking about dieting. They are concerned about their looks, and ask themselves questions such as ‘Are my thighs too big?’ I want to tell them that they should not define themselves by the readings on a set of weighing scales," Zhang said. 

When she initially started to organize events to spread awareness about eating disorders, people said, "So what?"

Now, more and more people are joining Zhang's events to gain an understanding of the issue. "There has been an obvious change," she said.

In March last year, medical journal The Lancet reported that eating disorders are a disabling, deadly and costly mental condition that impairs physical health to a great degree and also psychosocial functioning.

It said eating disorders have been on the rise for the past 50 years, with more than 1.6 million people being diagnosed with such a condition. Those age 14 to 25 are most at risk.

Shanghai Mental Health Center has witnessed a rise in the number of patients with these disorders. In 2002, it only received eight such cases, compared with more than 2,700 in 2019.

Chen Jue, director of the facility's Eating Disorders Center, said in an earlier interview that just a few decades ago, the condition was extremely rare in China. The main focus of most people in low-paid blue-collar jobs was putting food on the table. 

"Nowadays, being slim is not only associated with beauty, but also with self-discipline, success and even social class," Chen said.

The rise of social media, with online influencers regularly showing off their "perfect" bodies — face as small as a hand and waist thin enough to hide behind a sheet of A4 paper — has triggered competition among young Chinese.

The pursuit of bodily perfection is also evidenced by the booming cosmetic surgery industry in the country.

Last month, a group of "before" and "after" photos featuring operations to shape the calf muscles triggered controversy online. The surgery, which involves cutting nerves that control the muscles, is said to effectively slim the legs.

While some people proudly displayed their slim legs after the operation, others said they had experienced side effects, such as pigmentation.

Luo Chun, a doctor in the neurology department at a hospital in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, said: "I was shocked by the surgery. It's very difficult for nerves to recover after they have been cut. This leads to weakness and muscle wastage — even paralysis. It is no exaggeration to say that this kind of surgery is self-harming. Those beauty standards are twisted, toxic and harmful."

（Source:http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202106/07/WS60bd5f9a31024ad0bac3ebf.html）

03 Lexical Chunks and Writing

04 Bilingual translation: 

Put the following into Chinese or vice versa. 

A. English-Chinese translation

Learn the following useful expressions by translating the sentences selected from the passage. Then work out a sentence using these expressions.

B.Chinese-English translation

Put the Chinese paragraph into English.