文化模式的要素、高低语境

高低语境、人性、人与自然

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1. Hligh- context Culture

A high-context (HC) communication or message is one in which most of the information is already in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicitly transmitted part of the message. In high-context cultures (Native American, Latin American, Japanese, Chinese, and Korean), people are very homogenous' with regard to experiences, information networks, and the like. High-context cultures, because of tradition and history, change very little over time. These are cultures in which consistent' messages have produced consistent responses to the environment. "As a result," Hall says, "for most normal transactions in daily life they do not require, nor do they expect, much in-depth, background information." Meaning, therefore, is not necessarily contained in words. In high-context cultures, information is provided through gestures, the use of space, and even silence. High-context cultures tend to be more aware of their surroundings and their environment and do not rely on verbal communication as their main information channel. For example, the Korean language contains the word nurtchi, which means being able to communicate with the eyes. In high-context cultures, so much information is available in the environment that it is unnecessary to describe everything. For instance, statements of afte such as "I love you", are rare because the message is conveyed by the context.

2. Low-context Culture

A low-context (LC) communication is the opposite to the high context, i.e., the mass of the information is vested in the explicit code. In low-context cultures (German, Swiss, and American), the population is less homogeneous. Hall says this lack of common experiences means that "each time they interact with others they need detailed background information". In low-context cultures, the verbal message contains most of the information and very little is shown in the context or the participants. Members of low-context cultures expect messages to be detailed, clear-cut, and definite. If there are not enough data, or if the point being made is not apparent, members of these cultures will ask very blunt questions, They feel uncomfortable with the vagueness and ambiguity often associated with limited data.

3. Power Distance

Power distance is "the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions

and organizations accept that power is distributed unequally". Hofstede is not trying to measure how unequal people actually are in a particular culture. He is trying to measure how equal or unequal the people in a particular culture think people should be. Individuals from high power distance cultures accept power as part of society. As a result, superiors consider their subordinates to be different from themselves and vice versa. Members of low power distance cultures believe power should be used only when it is legitimate and prefer expert or legitimate power. See Table 11 to distinguish high and low power distance cultures. Remember that a low score means the country or region can be classified as one that prefers a large power distance; a high score is associated with cultures that prefer a small power distance.

Power distance is useful in understanding strangers' behavior in role relationships, particularly those involving different degrees of power or authority. People from high power distance cultures, for example, do not question their superiors‘ orders. They expect to be told what to do. People in low power distance cultures, in contrast, do not necessarily accept superiors' orders at face value; they want to know why they should follow them. When people from the two different systems interact, misunderstanding is likely unless one or both understand the other person's system.

个人主义、集体主义

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1: individualism and Collectivism

It is important to keep in mind that all people and cultures have both individual and collective dispositions. Table 9 shows how individualism and collectivism are valued in different cultures. Remember that a high score means the country or region can be classified as collective; a lower score is associated with cultures that promote individualism. 

In the individualistic culture, the interest of the individual prevails over the interests of the group.

The individual is the single most important unit in any social setting, regardless of the size of that unit, and the uniqueness of each individual is of great value. Individualistic cultures give more importance to individuals' needs when they do things such as setting goals. According to Hofstede's findings, the United States, Australia, Great Britain, Canada and New Zealand tend toward individualism. The American psychologist Daniel Goleman emphasizes some of the characteristics of cultures that value individualism:

. People's personal goals take priority over their groups like the family or the employer. The loyalty of individualists to a given group is very weak.

. People feel they belong to many groups and are apt to change their membership as it suits them, switching churches, for example, or leaving one employer for another.

Collectivism may be contrasted with individualism. On the collectivist side, we find societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) that continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.

Collectivism is characterized by a rigid social framework that distinguishes between in-groups and out-groups. People count on their in-group (relatives, clans, organizations) to look after them, and in exchange for that they believe they owe absolute loyalty to the group.

不确定性回避、权力距离

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2. Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance deals with the degree to which members of a culture try to avoid uncertainty. In comparison to members of cultures low in uncertainty avoidance, members of cultures high in uncertainty avoidance have a lower tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity, which expresses itself in higher levels of anxiety, greater need for formal rules and absolute truth, and less tolerance for people or groups with different ideas or behavior. Members of high uncertainty avoidance cultures also tend to display emotions more than members of low uncertainty avoidance cultures. Members of low uncertainty avoidance cultures have lower stress levels and accept different ideas and taking risks more than members of high uncertainty avoidance cultures. See Table 10 to analyse the ranking of the 40 countries and regions. Remember that a low score means the country or region can be classified as one that does not like uncertainty; a high score is associated with cultures that do not feel uncomfortable with uncertainty.

Hofstede summarizes the view of people in high uncertainty avoidance cultures as what is different, is dangerous", and the belief of people in low uncertainty avoidance cultures as "what is different, is curious".

Uncertainty avoidance is useful in understanding differences in how strangers are treated. People in high uncertainty avoidance cultures try to avoid ambiguity and, therefore, develop rules and rituals for virtually every possible situation. Interaction with strangers in cultures high in uncertainty avoidance may be highly ritualistic' and/or very polite.