Skill 13: Adopting Effective Language

Authors may use words to point out different stagesof the argument to the readers. These words signal the direction of the line ofreasoning.  It can help to use thesewords when scanning the text to find the line of reasoning quickly. They can alsobe used when constructing your own arguments. 

Different words have different functions within anargument.  Some, for example, are used atthe beginning of an argument, others reinforce a point, some signal a change ofperspective, they are used for conclusions. These words are sometimes known asconnective.  As they connect thedifferent parts of the argument.

Word Choice

Academic writing such as that used for researchprojects, articles and books, tends to avoid words that suggest absolute and,Instead, uses words that express some tentativeness. The kind of alternativesused are indicated below.

Activity 1:

Identify the propositions and conclusions in thefollowing arguments. Underline the indicators and pay special attention to howthe indicators connect the statements in each argument.

1. 1.   Sheila must be amember of the cycling club, because she was at last week’s meeting and onlymembers were admitted.

1. 2.   Nothing can be thecause of itself; for in that case it would have to exist prior to itself, whichis impossible.

2. 3.   Since a human beingis constituted by both a mind and a body, and the body does not survive death,we cannot properly talk about personal immortality.

1. 4.   We have defined anargument as a unit by discourse that contains a conclusion and supportingstatements or propositions. Since many groups of sentences do not satisfy this definition,and cannot be classifies as arguments, we must begin learning about argumentsin this sense by learning to differentiate between arguments and non-arguments.

1. 5.   Critics of theentertainment industry have often compared the industry to the tobacco industry.But such a comparison is unfair and completely unfounded. To begin with, everystate has a law barring the sale of tobacco to minors. By contrast, age limitsfor entertainment do not have the force of law. Furthermore, the governmentconcluded in the early 1960s that smoking caused cancer and other diseases, butno federal agency has found a conclusive connection between violententertainment and real-world violence. We also now know that tobacco companiesmisled the public by downplaying the risks of smoking-related diseases. On theother hand the entertainment industry clearly labels adult-rated content.

1. 6.   The collegeexperience of an eighteen-year-old is quite different from that of an older “nontraditional”student. The typical high school graduate is often concerned with things otherthan studying – for example, going to parties, dating, and testing personallimits. However, older students – those who are 25 years of age or older – areserious about the idea of returning to college. Although many high schoolstudents do not think twice about whether or not to attend college, olderstudents have much more to consider when they think about returning to college.For example, they must decide how much time they can spend getting their degreeand consider the impact attending college will have on their family and theirfinances.

Activity 2:

Study the signposting words in the followingstatements and then link them into a coherent argument.

1. 1.   Thus television’sreplacement voices both inform young viewers and encourage exchange.

1. 2.   Two researchersstudying children and television found that TV is a source of creative andpsychological instruction, inspiring children to play imaginatively and developconfidence and skills.

1. 3.   However, the valueof these replacement voices should not be oversold.

1. 4.   Instead of passivelywatching, children interact with the programs and videos and sometimes includethe fictional characters they’ve met into reality’s play time.

1. 5.   In addition, humanbeings require the give and take of actual interaction.

1. 6.   Many studies showthat excessive TV watching increases violent behavior, especially in children,and can cause, rather than ease, other antisocial behaviors and depression.

1. 7.   For one thing,almost everyone agrees that too much TV does no one any good and may cause muchharm.

1. 8.   Steven Pinker, anexpert in children’s language acquisition, warns that children cannot developlanguage properly by watching television.

1. 9.   Replacement voicesare not real voices and in the end can do only limited good.

1. 10.They need tointeract with actual speakers who respond directly to their specific needs.

Towrite effectively, it is not enough to have well organized ideas in completeand coherent sentences and paragraphs. We must also think about the style, toneand clarity of our writing, and adapt these elements to the readers.

Arguersmake choices about language at three levels: word, sentence and discourse,which all serve as a strategic resource for conveying meaning as intended. Sometimesa sentence is hard to understand because of a problem with the syntax, or atthe sentence level. But very often problems with clarity of language are amatter of word choice (or diction).

Effectiveword choice means that the words chosen must be appropriate to the intendedmessage. Let’s consider the following examples and see what the problems mightbe:

Example 1:

--Martin is addicted to biting his fingernails.

--Martin has the habit of biting his fingernails.

Example 2:

--You may live in a house, but we live in a home.

Example 3:

--There are over 2,000 vagrants in the city.

--There are over 2,000 people with no fixed address in the city.

--There are over 2,000 homeless people in the city.

Othercommon problems with clarity of language include awkwardness, vagueness and/ or ambiguity.

Example 1:

--The dialectical interface between neo-Platonists and anti-disestablishmentCatholics offers an algorithm for deontological thought.

Example2:

--My cousin Jake hugged my brother Trey even though he didn’t like himvery much.

Example3:

--Society teaches young girls that beauty is their most important quality. Inorder to prevent eating disorders and other health problems, we must change society.

Anothertwo problems are wordiness and the overuse of slang and cliché. Wordinessrefers to a situation in which instead of choosing exactly the right word toexpress an idea concisely, a writer is verbose, using too many imprecise words.Examine the following examples and see if this might be a problem with ourwriting:

Clichés are catchyphrases so frequently used that they have become trite and annoying. They areproblematic because their overuse has diminished their impact and because theyrequire several words where often one would do. This is especially true inargumentative writing where concision and clarity are particularly valued. Theway to avoid clichés is first to recognize them and then to create shorterfresher equivalents. Look at the following paragraph and point out any clichés in it:

Activity 1:

Inthe following sentences, replace the slang or cliché with the selection moreappropriate for formal writing by ticking the box that precedes your answer.

1. 1.   My mother freaked out when she saw thephone bill.

Obugged out             O got very upset

1. 2.   The book was so wicked cool. I’drecommend it to anyone.

Oentertaining             O awesome

1. 3.   Lisa was really messed up and starteddrinking heavily

Oscrewed up              O having a hardtime

1. 4.   Even when I’ve got homework coming out of myears, I’m still glad to be a student.

O I’ve got morehomework than I’ll ever finish.

O I’m up to myeyeballs in homework.

1. 5.   As foster parents, we got more than we bargainedfor.

Owere out of our league

Owere overcome with unexpected responsibilities

Activity 2:

Readthe following paragraphs and recognize the imprecise expressions.