Skill 6: Developing a General Argument
There are mainlythree ways to develop an argument: evidence(facts, statistics, etc. that form the propositions of the argument), reasoning (the means of demonstratingthe relationship between the evidence and the conclusion) and emotional appeal which is a strategyused to awaken the appropriate sensibilities in an audience in order to inducethem to think seriously about an issue and act accordingly.
Develop by giving evidence
Factsare pieces of information that can beconfirmed or verified.
e.g.
As evidenced byrepeated experiments, this hair dye, due to its natural
ingredients thatboth dye and nourish hair, is safe and effective. （fact）
Analogy is an extended comparison in which different things areshown to be similar in several ways. Analogies are used to make complex issuessimple. The following analogy is used to object to the government’s paying forabortions:
e.g.
| Because the courts have ruled that women have a legal right to an abortion, some people have jumped to the conclusion that the government has to pay for it. You have a constitutional right to privacy, but the government has no obligation to pay for your window shades. |
Authoritative testimony is the citation or quotation ofacknowledged experts in a certain field.
e.g.
Jackie Chan saysin the commercial that he swears by this natural hair dye, it must be safe andeffective. （authoritative testimony）
Personal experiences are evidence from our daily life. On sometopics we can speak with authority, the authority of personal experience.
Statistics are percentages, averages, and ratios of a number ofindividual instances. Statistics based on an adequate sample can be valuablesupport for a conclusion.
Checkingquestions for good evidence:
--- Is the evidence adequate andrepresentative?
--- Is the evidence accurate?
--- Is the evidence relevant?
--- Is the source of the evidencecredible?
Develop by logical reasoning
Logical reasoningplays a central role in argumentation. Reasoning can be classified as eitherdeductive or inductive. In a deductiveargument, the conclusion follows logically from the propositions, i.e. ifthe propositions are true, then the conclusion must be true. The following isan example of a deductive argument.
Example:
Proposition1: Onlythose who score 600 or over can be admitted in the
program.
Proposition 2: Tomscored 580.
Conclusion: Therefore, Tom cannot be admitted into theprogram.
Inductive argument moves from particular observations orexperience and reasons to a general conclusion. It is more complicated, morecontroversial, and less certain than deductive reasoning. Consider thefollowing example:
Example:
Proposition 1: Allmy friends have scored 600 or over.
Proposition 2:They have all been admitted into the program.
Conclusion: Therefore, the score required for theadmission to the program is
600 or over.
As is shown in theexample, in an inductive argument the propositions may be true, but that doesnot guarantee the truth of the conclusion.
Checkingquestions for evaluating the effectiveness of reasoning
Fordeductive reasoning:
--- Are the general statement and thesupport provided probably true?
Forinductive reasoning:
--- Are there enough examples, or is thisa discreet conclusion/claim?
--- Can’t you think of an exception that wouldchallenge the conclusion/claim?
Develop by emotional appeal
An argument shouldnot only be logical, but also “feel right”. It must treat readers as realpeople by appealing to their common sense, hopes, pride, and notions of rightand wrong. There are circumstances in which it will be legitimate to awaken theappropriate sensibilities in an audience in order to induce them to thinkseriously about an issue and act accordingly. For example, if we want tosolicit money for African children affected by AIDS, we may have a betterchance of succeeding if we describe the heart-rending circumstances of thesechildren.
Generally speaking,there are two types of emotional appeal: appeal to pity and appeal to sharedbeliefs and values.
Appeal to sympathy: here, we draw attention to somecircumstance affecting us or someone else and gain the sympathy of ouraudience, leading them to a conclusion they would otherwise have been unlikelyto accept.
Appeal to shared beliefs and values: the idea is to search for common groundseven if we are addressing an audience whose position is completely opposed toour own.
Here are some tipsor effective emotional appeal:
-- Know our real readers. Who are they –peers, professors, or fellow citizens?
Whatare their allegiances, worries, and dreams?
-- Picture readers as resistant. Acceptthat our readers, including those
inclinedto agree with us, need convincing. Think of them as alert, cautious,
anddemanding – but also interested.
-- Engage readers positively. Appeal totheir better natures – to their sense of
honor,justice, social commitment, altruism, and enlightened self-interest.
Avoidappealing to ignorance, prejudice, selfishness, or fear.
-- Use a fitting tone. Use a tone that isappropriate for the topic, purpose,
situation,and audience.
-- Aim to motivate, not manipulate,readers. While we do want them to accept
ourviewpoint, it’s not a win-at-all-costs situation. Avoid bullying,guilt-tripping, and exaggerated tugs on heartstrings.
Activity 1:
Decide how the following arguments are developed. Arethe propositions and the conclusion logically lined? If not, please makeappropriate changes.
1. People need toimprove their understanding of how language works so that they can use it moreeffectively. Research studies show that the study of a foreign languageimproves our understanding of the structure of language, providing a means ofcomparing different language structures. Therefore, people who speak only onelanguage should be encouraged to study a second language.
2. The use of cellphones while driving makes driving more dangerous, though to what extent isunclear. The Insurance Information Institute recently summarized some studies:the Harvard Center for Risk Analysis blamed cell phones for six percent of autoaccidents each year, involving 2,600 deaths (but admitted that estimates aredifficult); the AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety studies videotapes of 70drivers are concluded that cell phones are distracting, though less so thanmany other activities.
3. You might expectthat personal computers in dorm rooms would be used for nonacademic purposes,but the problem is not confined to residence halls. The other day I walked intothe library’s reference department, and five or six students were grouped arounda computer – not conducting research but playing games. Every time I walk pastthe library’s so-called research computers, it seems that at least half of themare being used to play games, chat or aimlessly surf the Internet.
4. We are not in the19th century now! It’s no longer 1940. It’s like being back in the ark!
5. A head of stateshould have extraordinary power during wartime. The state at such a time islike a ship in a storm. The crew needs to lend its assistance, but decisionsare best left to the captain.
6. According to the SanFrancisco Police Department, in 1990 the city received 1,074 citizen complaintsof brutality against the police. Los Angeles received only half as many complaintsin the same period, and Los Angles has five times the population of SanFrancisco. So the police of San Francisco are much more inclined to useexcessive force than the police of Los Angeles.
7. Children do not havetime for school. One-third of the time they are sleeping (about 122 days); one-eighthof the time they are eating (three hours a day, totaling 45 days) andone-fourth of the time is taken up by summer and other vacations (91 days), fora total of 362 days. So how can a child have time for school?
8. When stores competefor customers, they try to offer special deals and services to look moreattractive than the competition, and advertise heavily to draw new customers inand old customers back. Then the other stores respond with special deals andadvertisements. Customers are drawn from store to store and then back again:they believe that they can get the best deal by “shopping around”. It could bejust the same with competing schools. Each school might advertise and offerspecial deals, and other schools would respond. Parents would “shop around”just as grocery shoppers or department store customers do now.
Activity 2:
Read the following positions and discuss in pairshow you might support each of them.
1. It must have rainedlast night.
2. I should get an “A”in this course.
3. Reducing youngpeople’s exposure to violence is important.
4. Social media helpolder people stay connected.
5. Take-home exams donot necessarily lead to cheating.
