第七类

290.Having little understanding of natural causes, it attributes bothdesirable and undesirableoccurrences to supernatural or magical forces,and it searches for means towin the favor of these forces.

291.Performers may wear costumes and masks to represent the mythicalcharacters or supernaturalforces in the rituals or in accompanyingcelebrations.

292.But the myths that have grown up around the rites may continue aspart of the group’s oraltradition and may even come to be acted out underconditions divorced from theserites.

293.When this occurs, the first step has been taken toward theater as anautonomous activity, andthereafter entertainment and aesthetic valuesmay gradually replace theformer mystical and socially efficaciousconcerns.

294.Thus, the recalling of an event (a hunt, battle, or other feat) iselaborated through thenarrator’s pantomime and impersonation and eventually through each rolebeing assumed by a different person.

295.A closely related theory sees theater as evolving out of dances that areprimarily pantomimic,rhythmical or gymnastic, or from imitations of animalnoises and sounds.

296.One, set forth by Aristotle in the fourth century B.C., sees humans asnaturally imitative—as takingpleasure in imitating persons, things, andactions and in seeing suchimitations.

297.Thus, fantasy or fiction (of which drama is one form) permits people toobjectify their anxieties andfears, confront them, and fulfill their hopes infiction if not fact.

298.For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain ritesessential to their well-beingand abandoned them, nevertheless, theyretained as parts of theiroral tradition the myths that had grown up aroundthe rites and admired them fortheir artistic qualities rather than for theirreligious usefulness.

299.For example, some early societies ceased to consider certain ritesessential to their well-beingand abandoned them, nevertheless, theyretained as parts of theiroral tradition the myths that had grown up aroundthe rites and admired them fortheir artistic qualities rather than for theirreligious usefulness.

300.Enormous changes in materials and techniques of construction withinthe last few generations havemade it possible to enclose space with muchgreater ease and speed andwith a minimum of material.

301.Modern architectural forms generally have three separate componentscomparable to elements of thehuman body; a supporting skeleton orframe, an outer skin enclosingthe interior spaces, equipment, similar tothe body’s vital organs andsystems.

302.Other, however, have adopted the philosophy that it is best to use thewater while it is stilleconomically profitable to do so and to concentrate onhigh-value crops such ascotton.

303.The incentive of the farmers who wish to conserve water is reduced bytheir knowledge that many oftheir neighbors are profiting by using greatamounts of water, and in theprocess are drawing down the entire region’swater supplies.

304.In the face of the upcoming water supply crisis, a number of grandioseschemes have been developed totransport vast quantities of water bycanal or pipeline from the Mississippi, the Missouri,or the Arkansasrivers.

305.Their seed heads raised just high enough above the ground to catchthe wind, the plants are nobigger than they need be, their stems arehollow, and all the rigiditycomes from their water content.

306.These plants are termed opportunists because they rely on theirseeds’ falling into settingswhere competing plants have been removed bynatural processes, such asalong an eroding riverbank, on landslips, orwhere a tree falls and createsa gap in the forest canopy.

307.A population of oaks is likely to be relatively stable through time, andits survival is likely todepend more on its ability to withstand the pressuresof competition or predationthan on its ability to take advantage of chanceevents.

308.Most were in Denmark (whichgot 3 percent of its electricity from windturbines) and California (where 17,000 machines produced 1 percent ofthe state’s electricity,enough to meet the residential needs of a city aslarge as San Francisco).

309.With a moderate to fairly high net energy yield, these systems emit noheat-trapping carbon dioxideor other air pollutants and need no water forcooling; manufacturing themproduces little water pollution.

310.Backup power could also be provided by linking wind farms with asolar cell, with conventionalor pumped-storage hydropower, or withefficient natural-gas-burningturbines.

311.Large wind farms might also interfere with the flight patterns ofmigratory birds in certainareas, and they have killed large birds of prey(especially hawks, falcons,and eagles) that prefer to hunt along the sameridge lines that are ideal forwind turbines.

312.Some analysts also contend that the number of birds killed by windturbines is dwarfed by birdskilled by other human-related sources and bythe potential loss of entirebird species from possible global warming.

313.By contrast, in the United  States an estimated 97 million birds arekilled each year when theycollide with buildings made of plate glass, 57million are killed on highwayseach year; at least 3.8 million die annuallyfrom pollution and poisoning;and millions of birds are electrocuted eachyear by transmission anddistribution lines carrying power produced bynuclear and coal power plants.

314.Where the forest inhibits the growth of grass and other meadow plants,the black-tailed deer browseson huckleberry, salal, dogwood, and almostany other shrub or herb.

315.The early explorers and settlers told of abundant deer in the early1800s and yet almost in thesame breath bemoaned the lack of thissucculent game animal.

316.A worsening of the plight of deer was to be expected as settlersencroached on the land,logging, burning, and clearing, eventuallyreplacing a wildernesslandscape with roads, cities, towns, and factories.

317.Wild life zoologist Hulmut Buechner(1953), in reviewing the nature ofbiotic changes in Washington throughrecorded time, says that "since theearly 1940s,the state has had more deer than at any other time in itshistory, the winter populationfluctuating around approximately 320,000deer (mule and black-taileddeer), which will yield about 65,000 of eithersex and any age annually foran indefinite period."

318.In addition, the paintings mostly portray animals that the painters mayhave feared the most becauseof their size, speed, natural weapons such as tusks and horns, and theunpredictability of their behavior.

319.Continued sedimentation—the process of deposits’ settling on the seabottom—buries the organicmatter and subjects it to higher temperaturesand pressures, which convertthe organic matter to oil and gas.

320.The development of the oil field on the North Slope of Alaska and theconstruction of the Alaska pipeline areexamples of the great expense anddifficulty involved in new oildiscoveries.

321.Moreover, getting petroleum out of the ground and from under the seaand to the consumer can createenvironmental problems anywhere alongthe line.

322.The body that impacted Earth at the end of the Cretaceous period wasa meteorite with a mass of morethan a trillion tons and a diameter of atleast 10 kilometers.

323.Only the last of these was suited at all to the continuous operating ofmachines, and althoughwaterpower abounded in Lancashire andScotland and ran grain mills as wellas textile mills, it had one greatdisadvantage ： streams flowed where nature intendedthem to andwater-driven factories had to be located on their bankswhether or not thelocation was desirable for other reasons.

324.In the 1760s, James Watt perfected a separate condenser for thesteam, so that the cylinderdid not have to be cooled at every stroke; thenhe devised a way to make thepiston turn a wheel and thus convertreciprocating (back and forth)motion into rotary motion.

325.Coal gas rivaled smoky oil lamps and flickering candles, and early inthe new century, well-to-doLondoners grew accustomed to gaslit housesand even streets.

326.Another generation passed before inventors succeeded in combiningthese ingredients by puttingthe engine on wheels and the wheels on therails, so as to provide amachine to take the place of the horse.

327.When he grew older William Smith taught himself surveying frombooks he bought with his smallsavings and at the age of eighteen he wasapprenticed to a surveyor ofthe local parish.

328.The companies building the canals to transport coal needed surveyorsto help them find the coaldeposits worth mining as well as to determinethe best courses for thecanals.

329.He later worked on similar jobs across the length and breadth ofEngland all the while studying the newlyrevealed strata and collecting allthe fossils he could find．

330.But as more and more accumulations of strata were cataloged in moreand more places, it became clearthat the sequences of rocks sometimesdiffered from region to regionand that no rock type was ever going tobecome a reliable time markerthroughout the world.

331.Some fossils endured through so many millions of years that theyappear in many strata, butothers occur only in a few strata, and a few species had their births andextinctions within one particular stratum.

332.This view is supported by a variety of factors that can createmismatches between very youngchildren's encoding and older children'sand adults' retrieval efforts.

333.Conversely，improved encoding of what theyhear may help thembetter understand and remember storiesand thus make the stories moreuseful for remembering future events.

334.Mineral deficiencies can often be detected by specific symptoms suchas chlorosis (loss ofchlorophyll resulting in yellow or white leaf issue),necrosis (isolated deadpatches), anthocyanin formation (development ofdeep red pigmentation ofleaves or stem), stunted growth, anddevelopment of woody tissue inan herbaceous plant.

335.Later Heyerdahl suggested that the Pacific was peopled by threemigrations: by NativeAmericans from the Pacific Northwest of NorthAmerica drifting to Hawaii,by Peruvians drifting to Easter Island, and byMelanesians.

336.Contrary to these theorists, the overwhelming evidence of physicalanthropology, linguistics, andarchaeology shows that the Pacific islanderscame from Southeast Asia and were skilled enough as navigators to sailagainst the prevailing windsand currents.

337.The basic cultural requirements for the successful colonization of thePacific islands include theappropriate boat-building, sailing, andnavigation skills to get tothe islands in the first place, domesticated plantsand gardening skills suited tooften marginal conditions, and a variedinventory of fishingimplements and techniques.

338.It is now generally believed that these prerequisites originated withpeoples speaking Austronesianlanguages (a group of several hundredrelated languages) and beganto emerge in Southeast Asia by about 5000B. C.E.

339.These expeditions were likely driven by population growth and politicaldynamics on the home islands,as well as the challenge and excitement ofexploring unknown waters.

340.Because all Polynesians, Micronesians, and many Melanesians speakAustronesian languages andgrow crops derived from Southeast Asia, allthese peoples most certainlyderived from that region and not the New World or elsewhere.

341.The geologic timescale is marked by significant geologic and biologicalevents, including the originof Earth about 4.6 billion years ago, the originof life about 3.5 billionyears ago, the origin of eukaryotic life-forms (livingthings that have cells withtrue nuclei) about 1.5 billion years ago, and theorigin of animals about 0.6billion years ago.

342.One interpretation regarding the absence of fossils during thisimportant 100-million-yearperiod is that early animals were soft bodiedand simply did not fossilize.

343.Were they salt domes such as are common along the United StatesGulf Coast,and if so, why should there have been so much solidcrystalline salt beneath thefloor of the Mediterranean?

344.Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by theregularity of the design andby that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, sothe various parts of the Romanrealm were bonded into a massive,monolithic entity by physical,organizational, and psychological controls.

345.The physical bonds included the network of military garrisons, whichwere stationed in everyprovince, and the network of stone-built roads thatlinked the provinces with Rome.

346.The organizational bonds were based on the common principles of lawand administration and on theuniversal army of officials who enforcedcommon standards of conduct.

347.The psychological controls were built on fear and punishment—on theabsolute certainty that anyoneor anything that threatened the authority ofRome would be utterly destroyed.

348.Of course, the contrast is not quite so stark: in Alexander the Great theGreeks had found the greatestterritorial conqueror of all time; and theRomans, once they movedoutside Italy,did not fail to learn the lessons ofsea power.

349.In turn, a deep attachment to the land, and to the stability which rurallife engenders, fostered theRoman virtues: gravitas, a sense ofresponsibility, peitas, asense of devotion to family and country, and iustitia,a sense of the natural order.

350.As always, there are the power worshippers, especially amonghistorians, who arepredisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feelmore attracted to the might ofRome than to the subtlety of Greece.

351.It may have developed independently, but many scholars believe thatthe spread of agriculture andiron throughout Africa linked it to the majorcenters of the Near East and Mediterranean world.

352.Rock paintings in the Sahara indicate that horses and chariots wereused to traverse the desertand that by 300-200 B.C., there were traderoutes across the Sahara.

353.This was an important innovation, because the camel’s abilities tothrive in harsh desertconditions and to carry large loads cheaply made itan effective and efficientmeans of transportation.

354.Unlike in the Americas,where metallurgy was a very late and limiteddevelopment, Africans had ironfrom a relatively early date, developingingenious furnaces to producethe high heat needed for production and tocontrol the amount of air thatreached the carbon and iron ore necessaryfor making iron.

355.It had over 2,000 apartment complexes, a great market, a largenumber of industrial workshops,an administrative center, a number ofmassive religious edifices,and a regular grid pattern of streets and buildings.

356.Among the main factors are Teotihuacán’s geographic location on anatural trade route to thesouth and east of the Valley of Mexico, theobsidian resources in the Teotihuacán Valley itself, and the valley’spotential for extensiveirrigation.

357.The exact role of other factors is much more difficult to pinpoint―forinstance, Teotihuacán’sreligious significance as a shrine, the historicalsituation in and around the Valley of Mexico toward the end of the firstmillennium B.C., the ingenuityand foresightedness of Teotihuacán’s elite,and, finally, the impact ofnatural disasters, such as the volcanic eruptionsof the late first millenniumB.C.

358.The picture of Teotihuacán that emerges is a classic picture of positivefeedback among obsidian miningand working, trade, population growth,irrigation, and religioustourism.

359.The thriving obsidian operation, for example, would necessitate moreminers, additionalmanufacturers of obsidian tools, and additional tradersto carry the goods to newmarkets.

360.Many plants and animals disappear abruptly from the fossil record asone moves from layers of rockdocumenting the end of the Cretaceous upinto rocks representing thebeginning of the Cenozoic (the era after theMesozoic).

361.Their calculations show that the impact kicked up a dust cloud that cutoff sunlight for severalmonths, inhibiting photosynthesis in plants;decreased surface temperatureson continents to below freezing; causedextreme episodes of acid rain;and significantly raised long-term globaltemperatures through thegreenhouse effect.

362.Support is growing for the alternative theory that people usingwatercraft, possibly skinboats, moved southward from Beringia along theGulf of Alaska and thensouthward along the Northwest Coast of NorthAmerica possibly as early as16,000 years ago.

363.Because of the barrier of ice to the east, the Pacific Ocean to the west,and populated areas to the north, theremay have been a greater impetusfor people to move in a southerlydirection.

364.Teachers, it is thought, benefit from the practice of reflection, theconscious act of thinkingdeeply about and carefully examining theinteractions and events withintheir own classrooms.

365.This was justified by the view that reflective practice could helpteachers to feel moreintellectually involved in their role and work inteaching and enable them tocope with the paucity of scientific fact and theuncertainty of knowledge inthe discipline of teaching.

366.The teachers were taken through a program of talking about teachingevents, moving on to reflectingabout specific issues in a supported, andlater an independent, manner.

367.The first is support from administrators in an education system, enabling teachers tounderstand the requirements of reflective practiceand how it relates to teachingstudents.

368.Becoming a reflective practitioner requires extra work (Jaworski, 1993)and has only vaguely definedgoals with, perhaps, little initially perceivablereward and the threat ofvulnerability.

369.There appear to be many unexplored matters about the motivation toreflect-for example, the valueof externally motivated reflection as opposedto that of teachers who mightreflect by habit.

370.It is significant that the earliest living things that built communities onthese islands are examples ofsymbiosis, a phenomenon that dependsupon the close cooperation oftwo or more forms of life and a principle thatis very important in islandcommunities.

371.The applied arts are thus bound by the laws of physics, which pertainto both the materials used intheir making and the substances and thingsto be contained, supported,and sheltered.

372.The skull is cetacean-like but its jawbones lack the enlarged space thatis filled with fat or oil andused for receiving underwater sound in modernwhales.

373.Several skeletons of another early whale, Basilosaurus, were found insediments left by the Tethys Seaand now exposed in the Sahara desert.

374.The semiarid lands bordering the deserts exist in a delicate ecologicalbalance and are limited intheir potential to adjust to increasedenvironmental pressures.

375.Since the raising of most crops necessitates the prior removal of thenatural vegetation, crop failuresleave extensive tracts of land devoid of aplant cover and susceptible towind and water erosion.

376.The consequences of an excessive number of livestock grazing in anarea are the reduction of thevegetation cover and the trampling andpulverization of the soil.

377.The extreme seriousness of desertification results from the vast areasof land and the tremendousnumbers of people affected, as well as fromthe great difficulty ofreversing or even slowing the process.

378.Exhibitors, however, wanted to maximize their profits, which they coulddo more readily by projectinga handful of films to hundreds of customersat a time (rather than one ata time) and by charging 25 to 50 centsadmission.

379.About a year after the opening of the first Kinetoscope parlor in 1894,showmen such as Louis andAuguste Lumiere, Thomas Armat andCharles Francis Jenkins, andOrville and Woodville Latham (with theassistance of Edison's former assistant, William Dickson) perfectedprojection devices.

380.These early projection devices were used in vaudeville theaters,legitimate theaters, localtown halls, makeshift storefront theaters,fairgrounds, and amusementparks to show films to a mass audience.

381.Previously, large audiences had viewed spectacles at the theater,where vaudeville, populardramas, musical and minstrel shows, classicalplays, lectures, andslide-and-lantern shows had been presented toseveral hundred spectators ata time.

382.What audiences came to see was the technological marvel of themovies; the lifelikereproduction of the commonplace motion of trains, ofwaves striking the shore, andof people walking in the street; and themagic made possible by trickphotography and the manipulation of thecamera.

383.For example, people who believe that aggression is necessary andjustified-as duringwartime-are likely to act aggressively, whereas peoplewho believe that a particularwar or act of aggression is unjust, or whothink that aggression is neverjustified, are less likely to behaveaggressively.

384.Apprentices were considered part of the family, and masters wereresponsible not only forteaching their apprentices a trade but also forproviding them some educationand for supervising their moral behavior.

385.Workers were united in resenting the industrial system and their loss ofstatus, but they were dividedby ethnic and racial antagonisms, gender,conflicting religiousperspectives, occupational differences, political partyloyalties, and disagreementsover tactics.

386.For them, the factory and industrialism were not agents of opportunitybut reminders of their loss ofindependence and a measure of control overtheir lives.

387.This "paper money aristocracy" of bankers and investors manipulatedthe banking system for theirown profit, Democrats claimed, and sappedthe nation's virtue byencouraging speculation and the desire for sudden,unearned wealth.

388.They wanted the wealth that the market offered without the competitive,changing society; the complexdealing; the dominance of urban centers;and the loss of independencethat came with it.

389.They believed that it should be used to protect individual rights andpublic liberty, and that ithad a special role where individual effort wasineffective.

390.Whigs appealed to planters who needed credit to finance their cottonand rice trade in the worldmarket, to farmers who were eager to sell theirsurpluses, and to workers whowished to improve themselves.

391.Democrats attracted farmers isolated from the market oruncomfortable with it, workersalienated from the emerging industrialsystem, and risingentrepreneurs who wanted to break monopolies andopen the economy to newcomerslike themselves.

392.The Whigs were strongest in the towns, cities, and those rural areasthat were fully integratedinto the market economy, whereas Democratsdominated areas ofsemisubsistence farming that were more isolated and languishing economically.

393.Causing participants in experiments to smile, for example, leads themto report more positivefeelings and to rate cartoons (humorous drawingsof people or situations) asbeing more humorous.

394.Ekman has found that the so-called Duchenne smile, which ischaracterized by ''crow’sfeet" wrinkles around the eyes and a subtle dropin the eye cover fold so thatthe skin above the eye moves down slightlytoward the eyeball, can leadto pleasant feelings.

395.There are two principal influences that shape the terrain: constructiveprocesses such as uplift,which create new landscape features, anddestructive forces such aserosion, which gradually wear away exposedlandforms.

396.Today, however, the relics of the Caledonian orogeny(mountain-building period)exist as the comparatively low mountains ofGreenland, the northernAppalachians in the United States,the Scottish Highlands,and the Norwegian coastal plateau.

397.The exposed rocks are attacked by the various weather processes andgradually broken down intofragments, which are then carried away andlater deposited as sediments.

398.Her dancing also attracted the attention of French poets and paintersof the period, for it appealedto their liking for mystery, their belief in art forart’s sake, anineteenth-century idea that art is valuable in itself rather thanbecause it may have some moralor educational benefit, and their efforts tosynthesize form and content.

399.The forward movement, the melting at the base of the glacier where itmeets the ocean, and waves andtidal action cause blocks of ice to breakoff and float out to sea.

400.Once detached from the ice shelf, these bergs drift in the currents andwind systems surroundingAntarctica and can be found scattered amongAntarctica’s less colorful icebergs.