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An essay is a group of closely related paragraphs，presenting and developing a single topic.Because the topic of an essay is too complex to discuss in one paragraph，you need to divide it into several paragraphs，one for each major point.Then you need to tie the paragraphs together by adding an introduction and a conclusion.So，similar to the structure of a paragraph，an essay has three main parts:an introduction，a body，and a conclusion.An essay introduction is like a topic sentence for a paragraph in that it names the specific topic and gives the reader a general idea of the contents of the essay.The body consists of one or more paragraphs，each developing a subdivision of the topic.The conclusion，like the concluding sentence in a paragraph，is a summary or review of the main points discussed in the body.Note that concluding sentences for body paragraphs in an essay are not always necessary，especially when the ideas in consecutive paragraphs are closely related.

An effective essay has unity and coherence，just as a paragraph does.Linking paragraphs with transitions are also essential in an essay to help the reader see how the subdivisions of the topic are related，the same as you do when writing a paragraph.However，the transition which links one paragraph to the next is often placed in the topic sentence of the second paragraph and may be a single word，a phrase，or a dependent clause that repeats or summarizes the main idea in the preceding paragraph.Transition signals and the repetition of key nouns link the paragraphs into a cohesive whole.

Developing a Topic Outline

Following the writing process introduced in Chapter 1，before you write，you will experience searching for subjects，selecting and limiting subjects，considering purpose，audience and tone，gathering information，and classifying and arranging ideas.By grouping and arranging ideas，you are developing an informal plan for your essay.Based on that， you can prepare a formal topic outline，which has a specific format.

A topic outline is one in which the headings are not complete sentences but nouns and their modifiers，or gerund phrases or infinitive phrases.It shows the relative importance of the ideas and their order.The main headings are the most important ideas，and the subheadings are the supporting ideas and details.A topic outline is brief and clear，and it gives an instant overview of the entire essay.A topic outline should include a title and a thesis statement.

The following rules should be observed for writing topic outlines.When subtopics are included in an outline，there must be more than one subtopic under a topic.If you find yourself with a single subtopic，revise the topic above it to include the subtopic，as in Example 1.

1.INCORRECT:How to be found

CORRECT:Letting rescuers find you

Begin each topic and subtopic with a capital letter.Use parallel structures for the headings of the same rank.Make sure the thesis statement is a complete declarative sentence.See how the following topic outline adheres to the rules for outline form.

Title:Surviving in the Wilderness

Thesis:For a lost camper，wilderness survival depends on knowing how to be found，staying dry and warm，and obtaining food and water.

A.Marking your location

B.Letting rescuers find you

a.Giving smoking signals

b.Making blasts on whistle

II.How to stay dry and warm

III.How to obtain food and water

A.Preventing starvation

a.Eating berries，plants，seeds

b.Eating insects，birds，fish and frogs

B.Preventing dehydration

a.Collecting rainwater on leaves

b.Looking for signs of water

A thesis statement，similar to the topic sentence which states the one main idea in a paragraph， states the one main idea in an essay.It indicates the purposes of the essay and makes clear what aspects of the topic the writer will discuss.It tells the audience what the essay will be about，and it reminds the writer to keep to the main idea throughout the essay.It may indicate the pattern of organization of the essay，and is normally the last sentence in the introductory paragraph.

A thesis statement is the most important sentence in your essay.Everything in your essay should support your thesis.Consequently， if you write your thesis statement at the top of your first draft and refer to it often，your chances of drifting away from your purpose should be reduced.

When forming your thesis statement，bear in mind that a thesis statement must be an opinion， not a fact.A thesis is an assertion of opinion that leads to discussion.Don’ t select an idea that is self-evident，as shown in Examples 2 and 3.A thesis must be an opinion about an important issue，not merely a personal preference，as shown in Example 4.Also bear in mind that the thesis should not be too general，as shown in Examples 5 and 6，and that the thesis must not be expressed in the form of a question unless the answer is already obvious to the reader，as shown in Example 7.Never begin your thesis with expressions such as “in my opinion， ”“I believe， ”and“in this essay I’ ll argue that...” .These unnecessary phrases weaken your thesis statement because they often make you sound timid or uncertain.Be forceful:speak directly with conviction，as in Example 8.

2.FACT:Child abuse is a terrible problem.

BETTER:Child abuse laws in China are too lenient for repeat offenders.

3.FACT:The Internet is a communication superhighway.

BETTER:The explosion of the Internet has had both positive and negative consequences.

4.POOR:My car is the best model on the road today.

BETTER:The government should use import quotas to limit the number of foreign cars sold.

5.GENERAL:A college education is a good investment.

BETTER:A college education is a good investment for four reasons.

6.GENERAL:Lasers are useful.

BETTER:Lasers have several applications in industry and medicine.

7.POOR:Why should every college student be required to take two years of foreign language?

BETTER:Chemistry majors should be exempt from the foreign language requirement.

8.POOR:My opinion is that the government should devote more money to solar energy research.

BETTER:The government should devote more money to solar energy research.

Effective Introductions

The introduction should catch the readers’attention and make them want to read further.It should also establish the context of discussion and agree in tone and style with the rest of the essay.The thesis statement is often the last sentence in the introduction.

The ways to write effective introductory paragraphs depend on the purpose of the writer，on the audience and the occasion.Though each writing situation calls for its own approach，here are five general techniques.You may begin with a direct announcement of the topic.Essay exams，reports，and short papers call for this direct approach，as in Example 9.You may also begin with a question.A question that requires more than a simple yes or no answer encourages the reader to read on to find an answer.By expressing some concern that the reader already feels，you can answer the question in the opening paragraph or take it up in the body of the essay，as in Example 10.A third way to begin is by using a statement that contradicts your thesis and countering it in your thesis statement.This technique arouses interest by taking the audience by surprise，as in Example 11.When you are writing for an audience unfamiliar with your topic，a relevant story，joke，or anecdote can vividly and quickly reveal aspects of your topic，as in Example 12.Another way to introduce your topic to unfamiliar audience is to begin with general background information，as in Example 13.

9.There is no need to fear being lost in the wilderness.Survival can be more than just a stroke of good luck for hikers and campers who know how to be found，how to stay dry and warm，and how to obtain food and water.

10.What skills enable a hiker or camper to survive being lost in the wilderness? My own experience suggests that knowing how to be found，how to stay dry and warm，and how to obtain food and water can get a lost hiker or camper out of the woods alive.

11.To survive being lost in the wilderness seems impossible.By knowing how to be found，how to stay dry and warm，and how to obtain food and water，however，a lost hiker or camper can survive this frightening experience.

Anecdotes or Examples

12.In the early 1940’ s，a Chinese sailor survived on a raft in the Atlantic Ocean for 133 days.I thought about his still-unsurpassed feat last summer when I sat alone in a pine forest deep in a national park.My backpacking friends had gone ahead to explore a nearby ridge，and within moments I could no longer hear their voices.Strange thoughts crept into my mind.What if we were separated? What if I became lost in the woods?I realized that my survival，like the sailors，would depend on my skill at being found，staying dry and warm，and obtaining food and water.

General Background Information

13.Each year increasing numbers of hikers and campers enjoy our national parks and wilderness areas.Being lost is always a possibility for those who enter the wilderness，but it does not have to end in disaster.F～^or a lost camper，survival depends on knowing how to be found，how to stay dry and warm，and how to obtain food and water.

In addition to the previous suggestions on writing effective openings，here is some advice to help you avoid common errors in forming introductory paragraphs.Avoid using I think，I feel，In my opinion or In my judgment as an opening，as in Example 14.Avoid using a flat announcement，such as The purpose of this essay is...， In this essay I will...， or any similar presentation of your intention or topic，as in Example 15.Avoid openings that apologize for your own incompetence or lack of knowledge，such as I'm not sure if I’ m right，but...，I don’ t know much about this，but...，or a similar line，as in Example 16，because such openings will only convince the reader that it’ s a waste of time to continue reading.Don’ t start by citing a dictionary definition，such as according to Webster， ...，because this kind of opening has become dull with overuse.And don’ t extend your reach too wide with a line such as Throughout human history...or In today's world....Readers can do without such warm-up.

14.I think the advantages of extensive reading are far greater than intensive reading.

15.My essay is about the economic reform in China that benefits both the people and the country.

16.Although I am no authority on English grammar，I want to probe the use of“double object” .

Effective Conclusions

The concluding paragraph is used to signal the end of the essay，to remind your reader of your main points，and to leave your reader with your final thoughts on the topic.This is your opportunity to emphasize the importance of your thinking，and to convey a strong，effective message that your reader will remember.It also gives your essay a sense of completeness.Not all essays require a concluding paragraph; it is more likely to be necessary in expository or persuasive essays.

Effective conclusions can be formed by using restatement or summary of both the thesis and the essay’ s major points (a straightforward essay，an examination answer，or a technical paper can end this way)，as in Example 17，by making a recommendation，as in Example 18，or by making a prediction based on the essay’ s thesis statement，as in Example 19.

Restatement or Summary

17.Being lost in the wilderness does not have to be a tragic experience.By using the resources immediately available to you，you can keep yourself alive until help reaches you—without injury，exhaustion，confusion，or panic.It is all a matter of using your good sense and skills for the most important purpose:to stay alive.

18.It is clear that the higher educational system is in trouble.For many students，four years of college is no longer possible because of increasing costs and decreasing financial aid.To reverse this trend，we must demand that government increase its financial support of colleges and universities and restore financial aid programs.Our future depends on it.

19.We have seen how the costs of attending college have been rising while，at the same time，sources of financial aid for students have been disappearing.If this trend continues，fewer and fewer families will be able to send their children through four years of college.

The following concluding paragraph should be avoided:conclusions that simply replay your introduction (what the body paragraphs have added to the introduction should be captured in the conclusion)，conclusions that introduce a new idea different from your thesis (such a new idea may be a signal to start another essay)，and conclusions that cast doubt on your essay (never say Even though I’ m no expert/This may not be convincing，but I believe it’ s true or anything similar).

Common Types of Essays

Depending on the writer’ s main purpose，most essays can be classified into four types:expository，argumentative，descriptive and narrative.The first two kinds will be discussed here as they are more commonly used in college writing.

The expository essay is to give information about a person， a place， an event，or an object，to explain how to make or do something，or to explain an opinion.It is most frequently used by college students，scientists，researchers，and professionals.

Various categories can be grouped as expository，such as digest，directions，abstracts，forms，preface，yearbooks，notes and advertisement.在这些说明文的种类中，特别注意文摘的写法:文摘不是书评，不能加入作者个人主观色彩的评论、注解，只能是原汁原味、如实地再现原文的观点和风貌。摘要是以最扼要的文字概括出最全面的图书或文章大意，具体写作方法参见Chapter 6。

Depending on your purpose，an expository essay can be organized in a variety of ways.The most common patterns include development by illustration，definition，comparison and contrast，and causal analysis.Rarely is an essay completely developed by a single strategy.For example，an essay developed by comparison and contrast may also contain examples; a classification essay may contain definitions.

The most efficient pattern of exposition is illustration.Good examples not only help to clarify your thought by making the general specific，and the abstract concrete，but also add interest and help to persuade or convince the reader.

The purpose of providing definitions to develop essay content is to explain the meaning of a word or term in order to make a point.You can define a word with synonym，function，negation and classification，as in Example 20.

20.SYNONYM:To be courteous means to be polite.

FUNCTION:A toast is a call on other people to drink to a person or thing.

NEGATION:A good teacher does not just teach students knowledge，but teaches them how to behave.

CLASSIFICATION:A dictatorship is a form of government in which one person has absolute control over his or her subjects.

If you want to develop your essay by comparison and contrast，your opinion about the two subjects in question becomes your thesis statement; the body of the paper then shows why you arrived at that opinion.The dominant thesis statement，such as Example 21，must state the topic of your comparison and contrast， mention the points of comparison and contrast you will discuss，and explain whether you will focus on similarities or differences or both.You may use either the alternating pattern，shown in Example 22，or the block pattern，shown in Example 23.Whichever pattern you use，you should maintain a balance in the treatment of the two subjects in your writing.In other words，you shouldn’ t devote most of your essay to subject A，and only a small fraction to subject B.

21.College students in the sixties and seventies face many of the same pressures as today’ s college students，but they are better equipped to withstand these pressures.

22.There is difference between science and technology.Science is a method of answering theoretical questions; technology is a method of solving practical problems.Science has to do with discovering the facts and the relationships between phenomena in nature and with establishing theories that help to organize these facts and relationships; technology has to do with tools，techniques，and procedures for putting the findings of science into practical use.

23.The development of transportation and that of communication have much in common.Thanks to the industrial revolution， means of transportation makes a great leap forward.With the invention of the steam locomotive people can travel faster by trains，cars and ships.Nowadays people can travel even faster by airplanes and rocket planes.Transportation develops faster to meet people’ s need for traveling quickly and comfortably.

Similarly，communication goes forward remarkably with the coming of information revolution.Great progress in science and technology enables people to communicate with each other more quickly by telegram，telephone and radio.Now the use of computer helps people to gather information more efficiently by E-mail and Internet.The development of communication is quickening in response to people’ s need for efficient and convenient exchange of information.

Causal analysis explains the cause-and-effect relationship between two (or more)elements.In the thesis statement of a cause-effect essay，you should describe the central point you will discuss，explain whether your focus will be on causes，effects or both，and state the basic causes or effects and the order in which they will be presented.

The purpose of argumentative writing is to convince an audience to agree with an opinion and，sometimes，to perform an action.An argumentative essay has at least five paragraphs.The introductory paragraph arouses the reader’ s interest and sets forth the position statement; it may also include background information.The body consists of three or more paragraphs，each of which presents one reason and its backup evidence to support the position statement.The concluding paragraph clinches the writer’ s argument.

An argumentative essay frequently makes use of the other three types of writing:description，narration，and above all exposition，for argumenta-tion and exposition are very closely related—argumentation is actually exposition with the additional purpose of convincing or persuading.

The thesis statement in an argumentative essay must not be a statement of fact; it must be a proposition the reader can differ.It must provide a clear，specific statement of your viewpoint，state the main ideas you will use to support your argument，and tell why the topic is important.Convincing evidence is a crucial part.You may find representative evidence from your personal experiences or observations，statistics，facts，examples and authoritative quotations.All the facts and reasons that are given as evidence should be logically connected with the conclusion and with each other.The evidence you provide should be arranged from the least to the most important，or from the most familiar to the least familiar，or from the easiest to accept or comprehend to the most difficult.

Important Kinds of Scientific and Technical Writing

Scientific and technical articles and essays are mainly published in journals，magazines and newspapers.They are normally intended to reach a wider audience than research papers.

Before writing such articles，you have to think about your audience because the tone and style depend on who the readers are likely to be.For example，a more scholarly，academic or discipline-specific journal will allow specialized vocabulary，while an article in a more popular magazine will present and explain the data in an accessible manner for a wider audience.

Structurally a scientific article can be broken down into three parts:the introduction，the main body，and the conclusion.Articles and essays need to be well thought out and ordered.How the writer introduces the piece，builds on the introduction through the body，and concludes will largely determine how the information is accepted.You must present main ideas，supporting evidence，analyses and conclusions in a logical and organized manner.The writing must not wander，but keep to its task of presenting the writer’ s information in the clearest possible way.

Every discipline has its own style standard.These style manuals are published and readily available for each discipline.You may refer to the key journals in your major for knowing and following the standard of your own particular discipline.

Research papers are generally written for scientists working in the same field and therefore have a more limited，and more specialized readership than articles.Research papers can appear in specialist journals or be presented at conferences.

A research paper has a more closely defined structure than an article or essay.There are normally eight sections in a fixed sequence in a research paper or scientific report.The eight sections are the title，which must precisely describe the report’ s contents，the abstract，a brief overview of the report，introduction，which includes the purpose of the research，the hypothesis，necessary background information，and a review of pertinent literature，methods and materials，which provide a description of material，equipment and methods used in the research，results，discussion，conclusions，which may include conclusions to be drawn from the results，conclusions about the hypothesis，implications of the research and results，and additional research proposed，and references，which include references to any works cited in the paper and which follow the documentation style required by your specific field.

Reinforcement　知识复习

1.Identify each of the following thesis statements as adequate or inadequate.If the thesis is weak or insufficient in some way，explain the problem.

(1)I think The Inception is a really interesting movie that everyone should see.

(2)Which cars are designed better，Japanese imports or those made in America?

(3)Some people think that the state lottery is a bad way to raise money for parks.

(4)People should be required to fly Chinese flags outside their homes on national holidays.

(5)Raising the cost of tuition will be a terrible burden on the students and won’ t do anything to help the quality of education at this school.

2.Write a convincing argument attacking or defending one of the following statements.

(1)To prepare students for a highly technical world，high schools should/should not extend their academic year.

(2)Violence in the movies does/does not contribute to crimes by teens.

(3)National exams，such as the College Entrance Examinations，should/should not be required for college applicants.

(4)Dress codes in public schools should/should not be more strictly enforced.

(5)Persons over 14 charged with crimes should/should not be tried as adults.

Extension　知识拓展

Topic，Topic Sentence，Thesis，Hypothesis

These terms are all often associated with introductory paragraphs.They are different and not all are found in every type of paper.

It is the subject of the paper.Chemistry or Amino Acids，Biology or Aquatic Invertebrates could all be topics.

It states the topic of the paragraph; in an introduction it states the topic of the paper.It is generally at the beginning of a paragraph.

It is a proposition phrased in a thesis statement.In the thesis statement the whole of what the writer is arguing is said in one clear and concise sentence.

It is a conjecture，a tentative or working theory，proposition or explanation used as a premise for reasoning，argument or investigation.A hypothesis proved false is as important as one proved true.

Two Ways of Seeing the River by Mark Twain

Please visit the following websites to read the comparison made by Mark Twain，and then try to find out Twain’ s argument and the purpose of his argument.

http://bcs.bedfordstmartins.com/everythingsanargument4e/content/cat_020/Twain_TwoWaysofSeeing.pdf