3.Colonial Expansion

The old colonial movement that reached its height in the 17th and 18th centuries had been to a large extent a migration of population from impoverished，crowded，intolerant Europe to new and，it was hoped，more prosperous lands.The early explorers went forth in search of gold and adventure；the settlers that followed sought freedom and improved economic conditions.However，the great long-term result of the early colonialism was that a New World had been discovered and Europeanized.A renewed interest in exploration and colonization，which was to partition the whole world，was an important outcome of the Industrial Revolution in West Europe.The economic root of the new imperialism was the rise of industrial and financial capitalism seeking new markets and new fields of profitable investment.For the purposes of the capitalists，actual political annexation and settlement were frequently unnecessary；economic penetration through the establishment of“spheres of influence”was sufficient.

Queen Victoria（1819-1901）

The aggression in China was a typical case of such penetration.At the beginning of the 19th century，China was still a great empire with a population of about 360million people，and a civilization far older than that of Europe.As time went on，the isolation of China was threatened by the eastward extension of the European power.In the 1830s，the English merchants began to smuggle opium into China from India.They reaped a lot of profit in this opium trade.In 1839aspecial Commissioner of the Qing government，Lin Zexu was appointed to deal with the matter；in Canton he burned to ashes over two million jinof opium.In 1840the British colonists launched aggressive war against China.The treaty of Nanjing in 1842ended the fighting.The Qing government was humiliated and was forced to cede Hong Kong to Britain as a base for her China trade.The Qing government also agreed to pay Britain an indemnity of￡4.5million and to open five“treaty ports”（Shanghai，Fuzhou，Amoy，Ningbo，and Canton），where foreign merchants could trade freely with the Chinese.The British colonists were also granted privileges for travel，missionary activities，etc.During the following one hundred years English aggressors committed countless crimes against the Chinese people and grabbed large spheres of influence on China’s territory.

The conquest of India was another case of economic penetration the British Empire.As early as in 1600，the East India Company was formed，which ruled India for more than two hundred years.The corrupt practices of the company stirred up deep hatred in India，and for years there had been unrest among the company’s Sepoy⁴ soldiers.In 1857arevolt by the soldiers broke out.It was touched off when many native soldiers（sepoys）refused to use the new greased cartridges which they believed were greased with animal fat from pigs or cows，for the Hindus regarded cow sacred，and the Mohammedans thought pigs unclean，The mutiny was finally put down by the English in 1859，but in the meantime，the East India Company test its power，and India became a Crown dominion⁵.In 1876，Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.

In North America and Oceania，the British government took a more flexible policy in its foreign expansion.After the Seven Years’War，the whole of Canada came under British rule.In 1837the Canadians revolted against the English control but were crushed.To avoid further trouble like that in America，Canada was allowed to have internal self-government in 1848.In 1867the British North American Act made Canada a dominion with a government similar to Great Britain’s.The governor-general appointed the Senate，and the House of Commons was elected by the people.The cabinet was responsible to the Commons.During the next 25years，internal reforms were made，a tariff levied to protect industries，and westward expansion was accomplished.By 1878the whole of British North Ameriea，except for Newfoundland，became a part of the dominion.

Australia’s first colonies were prison settlement.For a long time，British courts had punished criminals by sending them to the American colonies.When the Americans became independent，a new prison settlement at Sydney became the first colony in Australia.Ordinary settlers soon followed and began to raise sheep and cattle.Freed prisoners chose to remain as farmers，so did their guards on retirement.Settlements all round the coast developed into self-governing colonies.Gradually the railways joined them together，until in 1901they were united in one dominion.

New Zealand is a small country that is so like Britain that colonists quickly felt at home there.Her coasts were first explored by Captain Cook⁶ in 1769.Trading stations were set up in the late 18th century，and the first Christian mission in 1814.Britain began to colonize New Zealand and drew up a treaty with the Maoris⁷ In 1840.Self-government was granted in 1853.In 1907New Zealand became a dominion.Like Australia，she raises an immense number of sheep and cattle.

South Africa was another problem.When the British took Cape Town during Napoleon’s wars（1803-1815），there was already a large population of Dutch farmers，called Boers.Later disagreements occurred between the Boers and British colonists.The Boers moved northward and formed two separate states，the Orange Free State and the Transvaal.The Boers were able to retain control of the two states for a time，but the British desire for expansion resulted in the Boer War（1899-1902）.The British defeated the Boers and annexed the two states.Finally，the Union of South Africa，consisting of the four states，was established in 1910，and then she became a dominion，in which English and Dutch were joint official languages.In both World Wars the Boers fought on Britain’s side.But they still outnumbered the population of British origin and they still disagreed with the idea of race equality.When Britain began giving independence to her African colonies，the Union cut its last ties with the crown.

The other possessions of Great Britain in Africa included Egypt，Sudan，Bechuanaland⁸，Rhodesia，Uganda，Somaliland，British Gambia，Gold Coast⁹，and Nigeria.The financial coup through which Disraeli obtained control of the Suez Canal was of tremendous importance to Great Britain because of the value of the Canal in reaching India.Besides these possessions，the British also controlled many of the West Indies and naval and coaling stations in the temperate zones，such as Gibraltar，Malta，Cyprus，Falkland Islands，and Bermuda.

British Empire in 1900

By the end of the 19th century，the British Empire had climbed to its peak.At its pinnacle，the Empire occupied about 33million km²，taking up one-fifth of the world’s total dry land.This area was about 135times as large as Great Britain.It ruled over a population of 560million，which was more than ten times as large as that in Britain.The powerful British fleet controlled the main sea routes and the strategic spots along them.No wonder the British bourgeoisie boasted that their empire was a sun-never-setting empire.

Notes

1.Corn Laws：a series of laws passed in England from 1436onwards limiting the export and import of corn.The Corn Law of 1815allowed wheat to be imported duty-free only when the price had risen to 80s，aquarter.The high price of bread caused widespread suffering，and led to the formation（1838）of the Anti-Corn Law League.After much agitation，and following the Irish potato famine（1845-1846），the Corn Laws were repealed by Peal in 1846.

2.the Suez Canal：a canal linking the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean.The building of the Canal was begun in 1860by France，and completed in 1869.The British government purchased the controlling stock from the ruler of Egypt in 1875.In 1879 France and Britain established a dual control of the Canal and in 1882Britain got sole control.In 1956Egypt controlled the Canal and nationalized it

3.Victoria（1819-1901）：She was the niece of WilliamⅣand became Queen of the UK in 1837.She took her duties as queen seriously，and won the monarchy more respect than it had had previously.Her long reign saw the rapid industrialization of Britain，vast growth of national wealth，and the height of the British Empire.

4.Sepoy：Indian soldier in the British-Indian army.

5.Dominion：the British colonies that first became self-governing under the British Crown，then independent countries within the British Commonwealth before 1939.

6.Cook，James（1728-1779）：British explorer.He was in command of an expedition to the South Padfic in 1768-1771，when he sailed around New Zealand and surveyed the east coast of Australia.On a second voyage（1772-1775）he chartered the positions of Easter Island，Tonga and other islands.On his third voyage he searched for the North-West Passage，visited Bering Strait and Alaska，but was killed in a fight with the natives of Hawaii.

7.Maoris：the Polynesian aboriginal race in New Zealand.

8.Bechuanaland：the former name of present Botswana.

9.Gold Coast：the former name of present Ghana.

Exercises

Ⅰ.Choose the correct answer.

1.Who was probably reluctant to abolish the corn laws？

A.The Tories.　　　　B.The Whigs.

C.The workers.　　　 D.The urban middle class.

2.The incorrect comment on Gladstone is________.

A.He stood for laissez faire in economics.

B.He favored economy in public expenditure.

C.He adopted an aggressive foreign policy.

D.He adopted gradual parliamentary reform.

3.The incorrect comment on Disraeli is________.

A.He was the founder of the Liberal Party.

B.His policy was to expand the British Empire.

C.He made Queen Victoria Empress of India.

D.Under him the second Reform Bill was passed.

4.Which reform bill granted women suffrage？

A.The Reform Bill of 1832.　　　B.The Reform Bill of 1867.

C.The Reform Bill of 1884.　　　D.None above.

5.The Labour Partywas founded in________.

A.1893　　　B.1899　　　C.1900　　　D.1906

6.Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India in________.

A.1837　　　B.1876　　　C.1898　　　D.1901

7.The first dominion of Great Britain was________.

A.Canada　　　　　　B.New Zealand

C.Australia　　　　 D.the Union of South Africa

8.The Boers in South Africa were from________.

A.the Orange Free State　　　B.Transvaal

C.Germany　　　　　　　　　　D.Netherlands

Ⅱ.Fill in the blanks.

1.The Corn Laws were originally planned to ________English home-grown corn from competition from ________foreign corn，their existence made for________food prices，and assumed the superior importance of________ interests over urban________interests.

2.Under the Prime Minister________，the second Reform Bill was passed in________.It actually granted nearlyuniversal ________suffrage in cities.But millions of________workers still remained voteless.

3.The former name of the Labour Partywas the________Committee，which was founded in________.In ________the Labour Party became strong enough to control a________in the House of Commons and thus formed the first Labour government under the Prime Minister________.

4.The British East Indian Companywas formed in________.It ruled India for more than________hundreds of years.In 1857amutiny of________ soldiers broke out，but it was put down in________.Then India became a Crown________.

5.The Boer War broke our in________.The eventual British victory led to the formation of the ________of South Africa in________.

6.By the end of the 19th century，the British Empire occupied about________ million km²，taking up ________of the world’s total dry land.This area was about ________times as large as Great Britain.It ruled over a population of ________million，which was more than ________times as large as that in Britain.No wonder the British bourgeoisie boasted that their empire was a ________empire.

Ⅲ.Questions for Discussion.

1.Why was the abolition of the Corn Laws in 1846of historic importance？

2.How did the three reform bills enlarge the suffrage？

3.Why did working men want to form trade unions？What do you think the unions have achieved？

4.Why was there a new interest in exploration and colonization in the 19th century？How did the new imperialism differ from the old colonialism？