4.Cultural Results of the Industrial Revolution

The social and economic changes made by the Industrial Revolution stimulated the growth of the science of economics or political economy as it was usually called.The 19th century economic thinking stems chiefly from Adam Smith⁶，whose Wealth of Nations（1776）argued forcibly for non-interference by government with business.Smith held that each man is the best judge of his own economic affairs；that the free play of competition and the universal desire for enrichment would result in the maximum increase in total wealth；and that though individuals might be selfish and unconcerned with the common good，their collective activity would automatically，as if guided by an“invisible hand”，tend to the economic welfare of all.Smith thus powerfully supported the economic doctrine known as laissez faire.It means that government should not interfere in economic affaires of private enterprise，and that government should be merely an omnipresent policeman protecting property and compelling the performance of contracts.The purpose of the doctrine was to liberate the economic individual from government restrictions.It soon came to include such ideas as the sanctity of private property and rights of freedom of contract and free competition；thus，it became the opposite of mercantilism.This laissez faire doctrine appealed strongly to the new capitalists of the Industrial Revolution.

The ideas of Smith were developed and elaborated by the school of classical economists，the leaders of which were Thomas Malthus⁷ and David Ricardo⁸.In 1798Malthus formulated his“principle of population”，which stated that any improvement in the economic condition of the poor would be counterbalanced by an increase in population，since population tends to increase to the limit of the means of livelihood.It therefore followed that grinding poverty and a high death rate from starvation，disease，and war must forever be the lot of the mass of mankind.The only conceivable alternative，which Malthus hardly took seriously，was the limitation of the population by moral restraint.Ricardo put forward the well known“iron law of wages”，which stated that wages must inevitably tend to an amount just capable of maintaining life，much as the coal fed into a steam engine was just capable of maintaining the fire under the boiler.

Against the terrible pessimism of the individualist economists arose the socialist economists，who refused to accept as irremediable the bad conditions brought by the Industrial Revolution.Robert Owen’s⁹ experiment at New Lanark，Scotland，was a cooperative community scheme for improving the condition of workers.The success of the New Lanark experiment raised hopes for a rapid improvement of social conditions，but later experiments of the same sort by Owen and others were disappointing.However，they created a public opinion against the system of laissez faire，which demanded and obtained better working conditions，a higher standard of living，an increased leisure，and a greater freedom for women and children.

Notes

1.Anne（1665-1714）：Queen of Britain and Ireland.She was the 2nd daughter of James Ⅱ，and succeeded WilliamⅢin 1702.Anne was the last member of the Royal House of Stuart.She died childless in 1714，and was succeeded by a distant cousin，GeorgeⅠ.

2.MP：Member of Parliament.

3.Elector of Hanover：the title of certain German kings or princes，who were called“elector”because traditionally their ancestors had been the people who elected the Holy Roman Emperor.However，when GeorgeⅠascended to the British throne in 1714，the title became meaningless.

4.Francis Bacon：See note 14of Chapter 5.

5.“rotten borough”：one of the parliamentary constituencies in Britain before 1832.It held the right to elect members of parliament even though the population was much reduced or even non-existent.

6.Adam Smith（1723-1790）：Scottish economist.His best known work is The Wealth of Nations.In which he argues for free trade against mercantilism.His work established the classical British school of political economy，and dominated Western industrialized countries until opposing ideas of state control and protection were revived.

7.Thomas Malthus（1766-1834）：British economist，famous for his Essay on the Principle of Population（1798），in which he argues that population increases geometrically and food supplies increase arithmetically，so poverty is unavoidable.

8.David Ricardo（1772-1823）：British economist.His main work is Principles of Political Economy（1817），in which he set out the labour theory of value and the function of wages，rent and trade.

9.Robert Owen（1771-1858）：British socialist and social reformer.He was a cotton manufacturer at New Lanark，Scotland，where he set up a model cooperative community.His ideas were later important to the trade unions and cooperative movement.

Exercises

Ⅰ.Choose the correct answer.

1.England and Scotland were constitutionallyunited in________.

A.1603　　　B.1688　　　C.1702　　　D.1707

2.After the French and Indian War，Britain got control of________.

A.Canada　　　　　　　 B.India

C.the Ohio Valley　　　D.all above

3.When American colonies were fighting for independence，the King of Great

Britain was________.

A.GeorgeⅠ　　　B.George Ⅱ　　　C.George Ⅲ　　　D.George Ⅳ

4.Britain completed her railway system by________.

A.1800　　　B.1820　　　C.1850　　　D.1870

5.According to the Reform Bill of 1832，who got the right to vote？

A.The male workers in cities.　　　B.The middle class.

C.The women.　　　D.The farmhands.

6.The People’s Charter includes all the following points except________.

A.the universal manhood suffrage

B.the abolition of property qualification for MPs

C.the abolition of payment of MPs

D.voting by secret ballot

7.The 19th century economic thinking stems chieflyfrom________.

A.Thomas Malthus　　　　B.David Ricardo

C.Robert Owen　　　　　 D.Adam Smith

8.The“principle of population”was formulated by________.

A.Thomas Malthus　　 B.David Ricardo

C.Robert Owen　　　　D.Adam Smith

Ⅱ.Fill in the blanks.

1.The first Prime Minister in English historywas________.

2.The Seven Years’War in North America was known as the________War.The importance of the war for Britain was that it left Britain predominant in________and in________，and thereafter Britain became the world’s leading ________power.

3.The Industrial Revolution in Britain started in the second half of the________century，and first began in the ________industry.

4.In his novels，Charles Dickens gave a vivid picture of the ________class of England.The literature of the time was mainly characterized by the________and ________of the society.It is therefore called the period of________.

5.The Industrial Revolution gave birth to a new social economic class，the________.

6.Laissez faire doctrine means that the government should not ________in economic affaires of ________enterprise，and that government should be merely an omnipresent ________protecting property and compelling the performance of________.It soon came to include such ideas as the________of private property and rights of freedom of contract and________competition；thus，it became the opposite of________.

Ⅲ.Questions for Discussion.

1.How did the Prime Minister in Britain come into being？

2.Why was Britain the first country to start the Industrial Revolution？

3.What were the causes for the failure of the Chartist Movement？

4.How do you comment on the“principle of population”by Malthus？