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It's an old controversy that was reignited this autumn by the remarks of a Nobel Prize judge:is American literature too insular，preoccupied only with the home country?If so，what else should we be reading in the age of globalization?

In October，shortly before the Swedish Academy awarded the 2008 Nobel Prize for Literature to the French novelist Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio，its permanent secretary，Horace Engdahl，gave an interview to Associated Press.“There is powerful literature in all big cultures，”Engdahl declared.“But you can't get away from the fact that Europe is still the centre of the literary world...not the United States.The US is too isolated，too insular.They don't translate enough and don't really participate in the big dialogue of literature...That ignorance is restraining.”

No American writer had won the Nobel Prize since Toni Morrison in 1993—and now we knew why.For all the apparent vitality of fiction in the US during the intervening 15 years—the miraculously fertile autumn of Philip Roth's career，say，or the formal daring and intellectual scope of major novels by David Foster Wallace，William T Vollmann and Jonathan Franzen，to name only three members of a notably gifted generation—the American scene，in Engdahl's view，was irredeemably parochial.

The response from the US was swift and predictable.The editor of The New Yorker，David Remnick，listed just some of the great writers the Nobel committee has failed to honour down the years:Proust，Joyce and Nabokov.An organisation with such oversights on its record ought to“spare us the categorical lectures，”he said.And Michael Dirda of The Washington Post wondered if Engdahl had really been paying attention in all the time since he and his colleagues gave the prize to Morrison.“He is just betraying an insular attitude towards a very diverse country.”

Engdahl wasn't really—or，at least，not only—complaining about America's alleged literary provincialism，of course.He is certainly right that the Americans(and the British，for that matter)don't translate as much as they should:whereas in France almost a third of all works of fiction published in a given year will be in translation，across the Atlantic that figure is closer to one-thirtieth.But the principal reason for this is the global hegemony of the English language.

The real cause of Engdahl's angst，therefore，is that what he called the“big dialogue of literature”is today actually being conducted mostly in English—by inhabitants of Britain's former colonies，for instance，especially those in South Asia and the Caribbean；and also by nonanglophone writers who have followed Conrad and Nabokov in choosing to write in English.One of the most interesting and critically acclaimed novels to have been published in the United States this year is The Lazarus Project by Aleksandar Hemon，a Bosnian-born writer who had only a rudimentary command of the language when he arrived in America in 1992.

Indeed，Hemon's is an interesting case.For among the complexities flattened out by Engdahl's vague appeal to an undifferentiated“Europe”is the prediComent historically faced by writers who，like Hemon，Come from the smaller European nations.One thinks，for example，of the Romanian writer E M Cioran.Looking back in 1949 on his younger self，Cioran wrote of his inner circle in Bucharest:“Located in a corner of Europe，scorned and neglected by the world，we wanted to call attention to ourselves...We wanted to rise up to the surface of history:we revered scandals，the only means，we thought，of avenging the obscurity of our condition...”Ultimately，avenging the obscurity of his condition meant，for Cioran，leaving for France and writing in French.

Cioran is describing there what Milan Kundera，in his most recent book，The Curtain，calls the“provincialism of small nations.”This is a kind of defensive pride that regards the“large context of world literature”with suspicion.Kundera contrasts it with the provincialism of bigger nations which turn their backs on world literature，not because they fear it，but because their own cultures seem to them“sufficiently rich that they need take no interest in what people write elsewhere.”Leaving aside the question of which“Europe”Engdahl was talking about exactly，the extraordinary thing about his remarks is that they managed to be parochial or provincial in both senses—in other words，defensive and self-satisfied.

At the same time，however，Engdahl did gesture towards the kind of literary cosmopolitanism(the“big dialogue of literature”and so on) that Kundera argues for in The Curtain.In Kundera's view，there are two contexts in which works of art can be understood:the“small”or national context and the“large，”supranational history of the art form itself.Provincialism is the inability to imagine one's national culture in the large context，and Kundera thinks it has done great damage to our understanding of literary history.If we were to view the history of the novel in the large context，we would see，for example，that Laurence Sterne was reacting to Rabelais，or that Flaubert was living on in Joyce.

Kundera credits Goethe with being the first to have understood this.In the 1820s，Goethe declared that the age of Weltliteratur，or“world literature，”was at hand:“National literature no longer means much these days，we are entering the era of Weltliteratur and it is up to each of us to hasten this development.”

He conceived world literature as a series of transactions between national literatures that would eventually give rise to something like a“universal humanity.”In this respect，world literature was analogous to the global market that was taking shape at the same time.(And，in fact，exactly this parallel would be drawn twenty-odd years later by Marx and Engels in the Communist Manifesto:“As in material so in spiritual production.The spiritualproductionsofindividualnationsbeComecommon property...From numerous national and local literatures，there arises a world literature.”)

There is a significant wrinkle in Goethe's theory of Weltliteratur，however—one that Kundera either overlooks or else chooses to downplay.And it is that Goethe reserves a special role for one national literature in particular:Germany's.He wrote that it was the“destiny”of the German language to beCome the“representative of all the citizens of the world.”With the centrality of translation to German literary culture，anyone who knew the language well enough wouldn't have to go to the trouble of learning Greek or Latin or Italian；they could read Homer，Virgil or Dante in German translations that were more than a match for the originals.Germany，therefore，was the literary marketplace par excellence.And Weltliteratur，it turned out，wasn't so much a matter of dissolving national boundaries as a matter of a single national literature going global.

You might say that today America(or the“Anglosphere，”if you want to include Britain)plays the role that Goethe once envisaged for Germany.And this，rather than America's“isolation，”is what Engdahl was railing against.

In his comments to reporters after the announComent that the Nobel Prize this year was going to Le Clézio，Engdahl again struck a cosmopolitan note.Le Clézio，he said approvingly，“is not a typical Frenchman；he is a nomadic writer.He doesn't belong anywhere.”This was a theme that Le Clézio himself would take up in his Nobel Lecture，delivered in Stockholm on 7 December.

Much of the lecture，entitled“In the Forest of Paradoxes，”is frankly rather anodyne:a string of bromides on the benefits of globalization and decolonization，interrupted by Le Clézio's musing as to whether Hitler would have been able to get away with his crimes if the Internet had existed in the early 1930s.Le Monde's magnificently grumpy literary blogger Pierre Assouline described it as“excessively consensual and overflowing with fine sentiments，”“quite boring and politically correct，very'united colours of literature.”There is also a long acknowledgements section in which Le Clézio discharges his debts to an impeccably heterogeneous parade of fellow writers，including“the Africans...the writers of the first nations in America...and the Mexican poet Homero Aridjis who allows us to imagine the life of a leatherback turtle.”

Yet there is one passage in which this blandly utopian line is complicated a little.Having construed literature，in good post-colonial fashion，as a means of expressing“identity，”Le Clézio recognizes that in order to be heard，an“Indian from the far north of Canada，”say，must write in the“language of the conquerors”—in English or in French.That may be“unjust，”he admits，but translation into one of the world's linguistic“monarchs”is the price of getting a hearing.

Le Clézio takes it for granted that French is one of those“five or six”dominant global languages(alongside English and，one assumes，though he doesn't spell this out，Arabic，Spanish and Mandarin).This was to be expected，for in March 2007 he was one of 44 signatories to a“Manifesto for a‘world literature’in French.”

Written by Jean Rouaud and Michel Le Bris，that doComent had its origins in a remarkable accident of publishing history.In the autumn of 2006，several of the major literary prizes in France were awarded to novels by writers whose first language was not French.The anglophone Canadian writer Nancy Huston won the Prix Femina，while the Prix Renaudot went to Alain Mabanckou，a Congolese-born novelist who lives in the United States.

The most newsworthy prizewinner of all，however，was the American writer Jonathan Littell，whose novel Les Bienveillantes(“The Kindly Ones”)won both the Prix Académie Fran9aise and the Goncourt.This 900-page epic，set on the Eastern Front during the Second World War and told from the point of view of an SS man involved in the administration of the Final Solution，sold more than 300，000 copies in a little over three months.

For Rouaud and Le Bris，this was a historic moment nothing less than a“revolution”:the moment at which the French literary establishment acknowledged properly for the first time that the centre no longer held.

What the distribution of the prizes that autumn showed，the manifesto argued，was that the“centre”of influence in French literature had been dispersed to the four corners of the globe.This was the end of the colonial conception of Francophonie，and the birth of a“world literature”(littérature-monde)in French.

The revolution was not merely a matter of geography，either；it also had an aesthetic dimension.For too long，Rouaud and Le Bris argued，French fiction had been in thrall to an aridly formalistic and self-enclosed model，the legacy of the nouveau roman，in which all contact with the“world”and its“vital energies”was frowned upon.When French literature went global，therefore，it rediscovered realism.

Significantly，the model for this transformation was English.Rouaud and Le Bris looked to the explosion of post-colonial energies in English fiction in the early 1980s.In novelists such as Kazuo Ishiguro，Hanif Kureishi，Ben Okri and Salman Rushdie，they saw not products of decolonization，but rather avatars of the 21st century.This was a generation of immigrant writers who did not hanker for the old country，but instead affirmed and wrote out of their“plural identities.”

It is a nice historical irony，of course，that the opening up of French literature to the“world”should require the emulation of an anglophone model.And it may well be that rather than announcing a revolution，as Le Clézio and the other signatories to the manifesto believe，the death of Francophonie in fact simply confirms the global domination of English.

1.What is Engdahl's view on contemporary world literature?

2.What is Kundera's view on provincialism and cosmopolitanism?

3.How does the writer analyze and assess Goethe's theory of Weltliteratur?

4.Why is what happened in the major literary prizes in 2006 regarded as a“revolution”?In what ways?

5.How does devotion of the bulk of the article on discussion of French literature relate to the title of“new Anglo-world order”?

Associated Press:美联社Cooperative news agency，the oldest and largest in the U.S.and long the largest in the world.Its beginnings trace to 1848，when six New York City newspapers pooled their efforts to finance a telegraphic relay of foreign news brought by ships to Boston.In 1892 the modern AP was set up under the laws of Illinois；several years later it moved to New York.Its restrictive controls on new memberships were ended with federal antitrust prosecution in the 1940s.AP was the first agency to devote a news wire to sports coverage(1946)，and it distributes business news through a partnership with Dow Jones＆Co.，Inc.More than 15，000 organizations worldwide obtain news，photographs，and illustrations from the agency.The AP Stylebook has beCome a standard in many journalistic organizations.美国联合通讯社，亦称美联社，是美国最大的通讯社，国际性通讯社之一。全社工作人员约3 000名，其中编辑、记者1 600多人。国内分社134个(包括6个总分社，100多个分社和记者站)。国外分社83个(包括3个总分社)，驻外记者500人。每天用6种文字播发新闻和经济信息约300万字。

Horace Engdahl:Horace Oscar Axel Engdahl(born December 30，1948)is a Swedish literary historian and critic.He has been the permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy since 1999，a run that will end in June 2009.In October 2008，Engdahl told the Associated Press that the United States is“too insular and ignorant to challenge Europe as the center of the literary world”and does not really“participate in the big dialogue of literature.”His comments generated controversy across the Atlantic，with the head of the U.S.National Book Foundation offering to send him a reading list.Engdahl was reported“very surprised”that the American reaction was“so violent”.He did not think that what he said was“that derogatory or sensational”and conceded his comments may have been“perhaps a bit too generalizing.”

Toni Morrison:(Born Feb.18，1931，Lorain，Ohio，U.S.)U.S.writer.She studied at Howard and Cornell universities，taught at various universities，and worked as an editor before publishing The Bluest Eye(1970)，a novel dealing with some of the shocking realities of the lives of poor blacks，and Sula(1973).The Brilliant Song of Solomon(1977)brought her national attention.Her later novels include Tar Naby(1981)，Beloved(1987，Pulitzer Prize)，Jazz(1992)，and Paradise(1998).The African American experience，particularly that of women，is the principal theme of her fiction.Her use of fantasy，her sinuous poetic style，and her interweaving of mythic elements give her stories texture and great power.She was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1993.

Philip Roth:(Born March 19，1933，Newark，N.J.，U.S.)U.S.writer.Roth attended the University of Chicago and first achieved fame with Goodbye Columbus(1959)，whose title story concerns the boorish materialism of a suburban family.His works are characterized by an acute ear for dialogue，a concern with Jewish middle-class life，and the painful entanglements of sexual and familial love.Among his many subsequent novels are the comic and scandalous Portnoy's Complaint(1969)and an admired series centring on a writer named Nathan Zuckerman，including The Ghost Writer(1979)and Zuckerman Unbound(1981).Other works include Sabbath's Theater(1995，National Book Award)，American Pastoral(1997，Pulitzer Prize)，and The Human Stain(2000).

New Yorker:U.S.weekly magazine，famous for its varied literary fare and humour.It was founded in 1925 by Harold Ross，who was its editor until 1951.Initially focused on New York City's amusements and social and Cultural life，it gradually acquired a broader scope，encompassing literature，current affairs，and other topics.Aimed at a sophisticated，liberal audience，it beCome renowned for its short fiction，cartoons，major(occasionally book-length)nonfiction pieces，and detailed reviews in the arts.It was sold in 1985 to Samuel I.Newhouse，Jr.(see Newhouse family).Since Ross，its editors have been William Shawn(1952-1987)，Robert Gottlieb(1987-1992)，Tina Brown(1992-1998)，and David Remnick(from 1998).《纽约客》，1925年创刊，周刊，由美国纽豪斯家族属下的康德·纳斯特出版公司主办。综合文艺类刊物，内容涉及政治观察、人物介绍、社会动态、电影、音乐戏剧、书评、小说、幽默散文、艺术、诗歌等方面。该刊是荣获美国国家期刊奖奖项最多的期刊，共获得34个奖项。强调精品意识，注重刊物质量，编辑方针严肃认真。随着计算机和互联网的普及，20世纪90年代末以来《纽约客》也开始采用这些新的媒体。部分的杂志内容可以在《纽约客》杂志的网站http://www.newyorker.com上免费获得。

Oversight:此词有两大意义，很容易混淆。一个是“An unintentional omission or mistake，”另一是“Watchful care or management； supervision”。

The WashingtonPost:Morningdailynewspaperpublishedin Washington，D.C.，the dominant paper in the U.S.capital and one of the nation's leading newspapers.Established in 1877 as a Democratic Party organ，it changed orientation and ownership several times and faced constant economic problems until financier Eugene Meyer(1875-1959)purchased it in 1933.Under the leadership of Meyer，his son-inlaw Philip L.Graham(publisher from 1946 until his death in 1963)，and his daughter，Katharine Graham(publisher from 1969-1979)，it acquired domestic and international prestige，especially in its coverage of the Watergate scandal.Donald E.Graham was named publisher in 1979.The newspaper is known for its sound and independent editorial stance and thorough，accurate reporting.

For that matter:其实，就此而言(用以指出所说的两件事中，后说的与先说的性质一样)It is used to add a comment on sth that you have just said.

Hegemony:(并非总含有贬义)Dominance，originally of one Greek city-state over others，the term has been extended to refer to the dominance of one nation over others，and，following Gramsci，of one class over others.Conflict over hegemony fills history from the war between Athens and Sparta to the Napoleonic wars，World Wars I and II，and the Cold War.Gramsci's use of the concept extends it beyond international relations to class structure and even to culture.

Originally，leadership，especially by one state of a federation，in terms of power and politics.More recently，within Marxist geography，the term has been applied to the ruling class.In this context，it refers to the way in which a ruling class will represent its interests as being everyone's interests.Marx believed that，historically，each ruling class did actually represent universal interests rather better than the one before.The ruling class may keep its grip on society either by social hegemony，that is，the use of force to maintain order in society，or，much more ubiquitously，by Cultural hegemony；by producing ways of thinking and seeing，and especially by subtly eliminating alternative views to reinforce the status quo.

Joseph Conrad:(Born Dec.3，1857，Berdichev，Ukraine，Russian Empire—died Aug.3，1924，Canterbury，Kent，England.)Polish-British novelist and short-story writer.His father was a Polish patriot who was exiled to northern Russia，and Conrad was an orphan by age 12.He managed to join the French merchant marine and in 1878 the British merchant navy，where he pursued a career for most of the next 15 years； his naval experiences would provide the material for most of his novels.Though he knew little English before he was 20，he beCome one of the master English stylists.He is noted for tales in rich prose of dangerous life at sea and in exotic places，settings he used to reveal his real concern，his deeply pessimistic vision of the human struggle.Of his many novels，which include Almayer's Folly(1895)，The Nigger of the“Narcissus”(1897)，Lord Jim(1900)，Nostromo(1904)，The Secret Agent(1907)，and Under Western Eyes(1911)，several are regarded as masterpieces.He also published seven story collections；the novella Heart of Darkness(1902)is his most famous shorter work and the basis for Francis Ford Coppola's film Apocalypse Now(1979).Conrad's influence on later novelists has been profound.

Nabokov:(Born April 22，1899，St.Petersburg，Russia—died July 2，1977，Montreux，Switz.)Russian-born U.S novelist and critic.Born to an aristocratic family，he had an English-speaking governess.He published two collections of verse before leaving Russia in 1919 for Cambridge University，but by 1925 he had turned to prose as his main genre.During 1919-1940 he lived in England，Germany，and France.His life before he moved to the U.S.in 1940 is recalled in his superb autobiography，Speak，Memory(1951).Beginning with King，Queen，Knave(1928)，his writing began to feature intricate stylistic devices.His novels are principally concerned with the problem of art itself，presented in various disguises，as in Invitation to a Beheading(1938).Parody is frequent in The Gift(1937-1938)and later works.His novels written in English include the notorious and greatly admired best-seller Lolita(1955)，which brought him wealth and international fame；Pale Fire(1962)；and Ada(1969).His critical works include a monumental translation of and commentary on Aleksandr Pushkin's Eugene Onegin，4 vol.(1964).

Critically acclaimed:注意此词组容易被误解。意为“广受好评的”。That has received generally good reviews from a number of critics.

Inner circle:(团体)内圈人士；内圈；核心集团An inner circle is a small group of people within a larger group who have a lot of power，influence，or special information.

Milan Kundera:米兰·昆德拉(Born April 1，1929，Brno，Czech.) Czech-born French writer.He worked as a jazz musician and taught at Prague's film academy，but he gradually turned to writing.Though a member of the Communist Party for years，his works were banned after he participated in Czechoslovakia's short-lived liberalization movement(1967-1968)，and he was fired from his teaching positions.He immigrated to France in 1975 and was stripped of his Czech citizenship in 1979；he beCome a French citizen in 1981.His works combine erotic Comedy with political criticism.The Joke(1967)，his first novel，describes life under Stalin.The Book of Laughter and Forgetting(1979)，a series of wittily ironiComeditations on the modern state，and the novel The Unbearable Lightness of Being(1984；film，1988)were banned in his homeland until 1989.His later books include Immortality(1990)and Slowness(1994).捷克小说家，移居法国后，他很快便成为法国读者最喜爱的外国作家之一。他的绝大多数作品，如《笑忘录》(1978)，《不能承受的生命之轻》(1984)，《不朽》(1990)等都是首先在法国走红，然后才引起世界文坛的瞩目。他曾多次获得国际文学奖，并多次被提名为诺贝尔文学奖的候选人。

Cosmopolitanism:Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all of humanity belongs to a single community，possibly based on a shared morality.This is contrasted with communitarian theories，in particular the ideologies of patriotism and nationalism.Cosmopolitanism may entail some sort of world government or it may simply refer to more inclusive moral，economic，and/or political relationships between nations or individuals of different nations.A person who adheres to the idea of cosmopolitanism in any of its forms is called a cosmopolite.The cosmopolitan community might be based on an inclusive morality，a shared economic relationship，or a political structure that encompasses different nations.In its more positive versions，the cosmopolitan community is one in which individuals from different places(e.g.nation-states)form relationships of mutual respect.

Goethe:歌德(Born Aug.28，1749，Frankfurt am Main，and died March 22，1832，Weimar，Saxe-Weimar)German poet，novelist，playwright，statesman，and scientist.In 1773 Goethe provided the Sturm und Drang movement with its first major drama，G9tz von Berlichingen，and in 1774 with its first novel，The Sorrows of Young Werther，an extraordinarily popular work in its time，in which he created the prototype of the Romantic hero.In 1775 he arrived at Weimar，where he accepted an appointment to the ducal court；he would remain there for the rest of his life，and his presence helped to establish Weimar as a literary and intellectual centre.His poetry includes lyrics in praise of natural beauty and ballads that echo folk themes.His contact with ancient Classical culture during an Italian sojourn(1786-1988)deeply influenced his later work.From 1794 Friedrich Schiller beCome his most important and influential friend.Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship(1795-1996)is often called the first bildungsroman(成长小说)；it was followed many years later by The Wanderings of Wilhelm Meister(1821； 2nd ed.1829).Many works were inspired by a series of passionate loves for women.His chief masterpiece，the drama Faust(Part One，1808；Part Two，1832)，represents Faust tragically，as a singularly modern figure who is condemned to remain unsatisfied by life.Goethe also wrote extensively on botany，colour theory，and other scientific topics.In his late years he was celebrated as a sage and visited by world luminaries.The greatest figure of German Romanticism，he is regarded as a giant of world literature.

Le Monde:法国《世界报》　Daily newspaper published in Paris，one of the most important and widely respected newspapers in the world.It was established in 1944，just after the German army left the city，as an independent organ free of government or private subsidies.Covering national and world news in depth from the start，it soon earned a reputation for accuracy and independence.Its writers present their own views，with the result that the paper reveals no consistent ideological outlook，causing it to earn both praise and criticism from every part of the French political spectrum.

Prix Femina:费米娜奖　The Prix Femina is a French literary prize created in 1904 by 22 writers for the magazine La Vie heureuse(today known as Femina).The prize is decided each year by an exclusively female jury，although the authors of the winning works do not have to be women.The winner is announced on the first Wednesday of November each year.

Prix Renaudot:雷诺多文学奖　The Prix Théophraste-Renaudot or Prix Renaudot is a French literary award which was created in 1926 by ten art critics awaiting the results of the deliberation of the jury of the Prix Goncourt.The Prix Renaudot，while not officially related to the Prix Goncourt，is a kind of complement to it，announcing its laureate at the same time and place as the Prix Goncourt，namely on the first Tuesday of November at the Drouant restaurant in Paris.The Renaudot jurors always pick an alternative laureate in case their first choice is awarded the Prix Goncourt.The prize is named after Théophraste-Renaudot，who created the first French newspaper in 1631.

Goncourt:French writer.By his will Edmond Goncourt established the Académie Goncourt(龚古尔奖)，which annually awards the Prix Goncourt，one of France's preeminent literary prizes，to the author of an outstanding work of French literature.

SS man:党卫军An elite corps of combat troops(SS is short for Schutzstaffel，which is German for“protective shield”)formed originally within the German Nazi Party as a bodyguard for Adolf Hitler and other Nazi leaders and led by Heinrich Himmler.During the 1930s，Hitler steadily expanded the responsibilities of the SS to include the suppression ofhis politicalopponentswithinGermanyandthe persecution of the Jews.The SS supervised the concentration camps.

Final Solution:Code-name for the Nazis'plan to solve the“Jewish question”by murdering all the Jews in Europe.The“Final Solution”was the culmination of many years of evolving Nazi policy:from Hitler's earliest writings about the need for a solution to the Jewish question in Europe；through the Nazis'attempts to induce mass emigration during the 1930s；to the plan for collective exile to a specific destination during the first war years；and by 1941，the mass extermination of Jews.

Avatar:The incarnation of a Hindu deity，especially Vishnu，in human or animal form.An embodiment，as of a quality or concept；an archetype.A temporary manifestation or aspect of a continuing entity.此词现也常用于网络，指在虚拟实境中互动呈现出的一个画像，代表自己。

Nouveau roman:The nouveau roman(French:“new novel”)is a type of 1950s French novel that diverged from classical literary genres to describe certain writers who experimented with style in each novel，creating an essentially new style each time.The ideal nouveau roman would be an individual version and vision of things，subordinating plot and character to the details of the world rather than enlisting the world in their service.

Decolonization:Process by which colonies beCome independent of the colonizing country.Decolonization was gradual and peaceful for some British colonies largely settled by expatriates but violent for others，where native rebellions were energized by nationalism.After World War II，European countries generally lacked the wealth and political support necessary to suppress faraway revolts；they also faced opposition from the new superpowers，the U.S.and the Soviet Union，both of which had taken positions against colonialism.Korea was freed in 1945 by Japan's defeat in the war.The U.S.relinquished the Philippines in 1946.Britain left India in 1947，Palestine in 1948，and Egypt in 1956；it withdrew from Africa in the 1950s and 1960s，from various island protectorates in the 1970s and 1980s，and from China Hong Kong in 1997.The French left Vietnam in 1954 and gave up its North African colonies by 1962.Portugal gave up its African colonies in the 1970s； Macau was returned to the Chinese in 1999.

World literature:World literature refers to literature from all over the world，includingAfricanliterature，Arabicliterature，American literature，Asian literature，European literature and Oceanian literature.Johann Wolfgang von Goethe introduced the concept of Weltliteratur in 1827 to describe the growing availability of texts from other nations，including translations from Sanskrit，Islamic and Serbian epic poetry.Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels used the term in their Communist Manifesto(1848)to describe the“cosmopolitan character”of bourgeois literary production.Although anthologies of“world literature”have often used the term to market a largely European canon，the past three decades have given rise to a much more expansive conception of literary interest and value.Recent books such as David Damrosch's What Is World Literature?，for instance，define world literature as a category of literary production，publication and circulation，rather than using the term evaluatively.Arguably，this is closer to the original sense of the term in Goethe and Marx.

Nobel Prize for/in Literature:The Nobel Prize in Literature is awarded annually，since 1901，to an author from any country who has，in the words from the will of Alfred Nobel，produced“in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction”.The“work”in this case refers to an author's work as a whole，though individual works are sometimes also cited.The Swedish Academy decides who，if anyone，will receive the prize in any given year and announces the name of the chosen laureate in early October.Nobel's choice of emphasis on“idealistic”or“ideal”(in English translation)in his criteria for the Nobel Prize in Literature has led to recurrent controversy.In the early twentieth century，the Nobel Committee interpreted the intent of the will strictly and did not award certain world-renowned authors of the time such as Leo Tolstoy，Henrik Ibsen and Henry James.More recently，the wording has been interpreted more liberally，and the Prize is awarded both for lasting literary merit and for evidence of consistent idealism on some significant level，most recently a kind of idealism championing human rights on a broad scale，and hence more political，some would argue.In 2008 the Nobel Prize in Literature was awarded to the French writer J.M.G.Le Clézio，who was cited as“author of new departures，poetic adventure and sensual ecstasy，explorer of a humanity beyond and below the reigning civilization”；he received a prize amount of 10，000，000 SEK(slightly more than 1 million，or US$1.4 million).The Swedish Academy has attracted significant criticism in recent years.Some contend that many well-known writers have not been awarded the prize or even been nominated，whereas others contend that some wellknown recipients do not deserve it.There have also been controversies involving alleged political interests relating to the nomination process and ultimate selection of some of the recent literary Laureates.

Francophonie:LaFrancophonie，ortheFrancophonie，isan international organization of polities and governments with French as the mother or customary language，wherein a significant proportion of people are Francophones(French speakers)or where there is a notable affiliation with the French language or culture.Started as a small club of northern French-speaking countries，the Francophonie has since evolved into a global organization whose numerous branches cooperate with its member states in the fields of culture，science，economy，justice，and peace.Formally known as the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie(OIF)ortheInternationalOrganizationofthe Francophonie，the organization comprises 56 member states and governments，3 associate members，and 14 observers.Francophonie may also refer，particularly in French，to the global community of French-speaking peoples，comprising a network of private and public organizations promoting special ties among all Francophones.The prerequisite for admission to the Francophonie is not the degree of French usage in the member countries，but a prevalent presence of French culture and language in the member country's identity，usually stemming from France's colonial ambitions with other nations in its history.Few of the member states are majority French-speaking，aside from France and its overseas possessions.The Francophonie could be considered a French version of the Commonwealth of Nations.

Postcolonialism:Postcolonialism(postcolonial theory，post-colonial theory)is a specifically post-modern intellectual discourse that holds together a set of theories found among the texts and sub-texts of philosophy，film，political science and literature.These theories are reactions to the Cultural legacy of colonialism.As a literary theory(or critical approach)，it deals with literature produced in countries that once were colonies of other countries，especially of the European colonial powers Britain，France，and Spain；in some contexts，it includes countries still in colonial arrangements.It also deals with literature written in colonial countries and by their citizens that has colonized people as its subject matter.Colonized people，especially of the British Empire，attended British universities；their access to education，still unavailable in the colonies，created a new criticism—mostly literary，and especially in novels.Following the breakup of the Soviet Union during the late 20th century，its former republics beCome the subject of this study as well.Edward Said's 1978 Orientalism has been described as a seminal work in the field.

Postcolonialism deals with Cultural identity in colonized societies:the dilemmas of developing a national identity after colonial rule；the ways in which writers articulate and celebrate that identity(often reclaiming it from and maintaining strong connections with the colonizer)；the ways in which the knowledge of the colonized(subordinated)people has been generated and used to serve the colonizer's interests；and the ways in which the colonizer's literature has justified colonialism via images of the colonized as a perpetually inferior people，society and culture.

Post-colonial literature(or“Postcolonial literature，”sometimes called“New English literature(s)”)，is a body of literary writings that reacts to the discourse of colonization.Post-colonial literature often involves writings that deal with issues of de-colonization or the political and Cultural independence of people formerly subjugated to colonial rule.It is also a literary critique to texts that carry racist or colonial undertones.Post-colonial literature，finally in its most recent form，also attempts to critique the contemporary post-colonial discourse that has been shaped over recent times.It attempts to re-read this very emergence of postcolonialism and its literary expression itself.Post-colonial literary critics re-examine classical literature with a particular focus on the social“discourse”that shaped it.Edward Said in his popular work Orientalism analyzes the writings of Honoré de Balzac，Charles Baudelaire and Lautréamont，exploring how they were influenced，and how they helped to shape a societal fantasy of European racial superiority.Post-colonial fiction writers might interact with the traditional colonial discourse by attempting to modify or subvert it.An example of this is Jean Rhys'Wide Sargasso Sea(1966)，which was written as a pseudo-prequel to Charlotte Bront3's Jane Eyre.Here，a familiar story is re-told from the perspective of an oppressed minor character.Protagonists in post-colonial writings are often found to be struggling with questions of identity，experiencing the conflict of living between the old，native world and the invasive forces of hegemony from new，dominant cultures.

http://www.nytimes.com/1987/07/19/books/the-sun-never-sets-onthe-english-novel.html

http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/03/24/ AR2007032401005.html

英语新闻标题中语态的选用。英语新闻标题运用被动语态的情况远比主动语态少。为了抓住读者的注意力，突出动作的承受者，英语新闻标题常采用被动语态。标题中采用“be+过去分词”结构表示被动语态时，其中助动词be通常省略而且也经常不用by来引出动作的执行者，仅剩下过去分词在标题里就可直接表示被动意义。例如:

●Girl of 18 Raped After Threat With Bread Knife餐刀威逼下，18岁少女遭强暴

●Van Gogh's Recovered After Theft凡·高名画失而复得。另外，主动语态在英语新闻标题中的广泛使用，主要是因为主动语态比被动语态更加丰富多彩，更具感染力，所表达的意义更为直接，更具有说服力，使读者能切身体会到新闻的真实可信，读起来朗朗上口，流利自然。

1.Toni Morrison is an American writer who won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1993.

2.The New Yorker's editor accused the Swedish Academy of simply ignoring other great writers like James Joyce.

3.The Washington Post admitted that Morrison betrayed his diverse country.

4.Americans translate just one tenth as much as the French people.

5.Kazuo Ishiguro，Hanif Kureishi，Ben Okri and Salman Rushdie represent a generation of immigrant writers.

1.In Engdahl's view，_______.

A.Europe is still the center of the literary world

B.American literary scene is deplorably parochial

C.the 2008 Nobel Laureate for literature is not a typical Frenchman

2.The Lazarus Project is_______.

A.a project by Aleksandar Hemon

B.a novel by Lazarus funded by Hemon

C.a project by a Bosnian in America

3.Which of the following do Hemon and Cioran have in common?

A.Both are from a smaller European nation.

B.Both write in English.

C.Both oppose Engdahl's view of an undifferentiated Europe.

D.None of the above.

4.Kundera thinks that provincialism_______.

A.exists in small nations，where they tend to be self-satisfied

B.exists in big nations，where they tend to be defensive and selfsatisfied

5.In line with Kundera's view，we can infer that_______.

A.Sterne and Rabelais may probably be from two different countries

B.Flaubert and Joyce may probably be from the same country