Passage One

Introduction

1．The 1960s saw a revolution in literary theory．Until this decade New Criticism^[5]dominated literary theory and practice with its insistence that one ultimately correct interpretation of a text could be discovered if the critical reader followed the methodology prescribed by the New Critics，believing that a text contained its meaning within itself．New Critics paid little attention to a text's historical context or to the feelings，beliefs，and ideas of a text's reader．For the New Critics，a text's meaning was inextricably bound to ambiguity，irony，and paradox found within the structure of the text．By analyzing the text alone，New Critics believed that an astute critic would be able to identify a text's central paradox and be able to explain how the text ultimately resolved that paradox while at the same time supporting the text's overarching theme．

2．Jacques Derrida，Stanley Fish，J．Hillis Miller，Michel Foucault^[6]，and many others—these philosopher-critics questioned the language of texts and of literary analysis．Unlike the New Critics，who believed that the language of literature was somehow different from the language of science and everyday conversation，these postmodernists insisted that the language of texts is not distinct from the language used to analyze such writings．For these critics，all language is discourse．In other words，the discourse or language used in literary analysis helps shape and form the text being analyzed．We cannot separate the text and the language used to critique it．Language，then，helps create what we call objective reality．

3．Believing that objective reality can be created by language，many postmodernists posit that all reality is a social construct．From this point of view，there is no objective reality，but many subjective understandings of that reality—as many realities as there are people．How，then，do we come to agree on public and social concerns such as values/ethics/and the common good?According to many postmodern^[7]thinkers，each society or culture contains within itself a dominant cultural group who determines that culture's ideology or its hegemony^[8]—its dominant values，its sense of right and wrong，and its sense of personal selfworth．All people in a given culture are consciously and unconsciously asked to conform to the prescribed hegemony．The message sent to them by the dominant culture has been clear:Conform and be quiet;deny yourself and all will be well．

4．But many have not been quiet．Writers and thinkers such as Toni Morrison，Alice Walker，Gabriel Garcfa Marquez，Carlos Fuentes，Gayatri Spivak，Edward Said，and Frantz Fanon have dared and continue to challenge the dominant cultures and the dictates such cultures decree．They have not been silenced．Defying the dominant culture，they believe that an individual's view of life，values，and ethics does matter．Not one culture，but many;not one cultural perspective，but a host;not one interpretation of life，but countless numbers is their cry．

5．Joined by postmodern literary theorists and philosophers，Africans，Australians，Native Americans，women，and many other writers are findingtheirvoicesamongthecacophonyofdominantand overpowering cultural voices．Believing that they can effect cultural change，these new voices refuse to conform and be shaped by their culture's hegemony．These newly heard but long-existent voices can now be overheard at the discussions taking place at the literary table，where they present their understanding of reality，society，and personal self-worth．

6．Known as cultural studies，an analysis and an understanding of these voices can be grouped into several principal approaches two of which are:postcolonialism，and gender studies．Although each group has its own concerns，all seek after the same thing:to be heard and understood as valuable and contributing members of society．Their individual and public histories，they assert，do matter．They believe that their past and their present are intricately interwoven．By denying and suppressing their past，they declare that they will be denying themselves．Their desire is to be able to articulate their feelings，concerns，and assumptions about the nature ofrealityintheirparticularcultureswithoutbecoming marginalized．Often called subaltern^[9]writers—a term used by Marxist critic Antonio Gramsci^[10]to refer to the classes who are not in control of a culture's ideology or its hegemony—these writers provide new ways to see and understand cultural forces at work in literature and in ourselves．Although each approach's literary theory and accompanying methodology are still developing，a brief overview of the central tenets of the two known approaches will enable us to catch a glimpse of their diverse visions of literature's purposes and functions in today's world．

Questions for Understanding

1．Is New Criticism in paragraph 1 refuted or supported?Why?

2．Why does it(New Criticism)incur acute criticism from Jacque Derrida and his like?

3．Why is there no such objective reality as some people may traditionally uphold?

4．According to paragraph 5，why are there so many people keen on the discussions“at the literary table”?

5．Is“cultural studies”pursued only by the literary criticism as it(this passage)may indicate?