6. Domestic Policy from Kennedy to Bush（1961-2001）

6.1　The Democrats’ “New Frontier” and “Great Society”

The Cold War was to dominate U.S. foreign policy from the end of the Second World War until the collapse of the Soviet Union. During this era the battle between capitalism and communism often overshadowed and affected events at home. However, domestic history throughout this period is an area rich in issues, events, ideologies and personalities, an examination of which not only sheds light upon the present-day U.S., but also gives a greater insight into the twentieth century’s great ideological struggle and America’s ultimate victory.

His undoubted political skills, coupled with the nation’s grief, enabled Johnson not only to realize some of JFK’s initiatives, but also to go further and leave his own mark, the “Great Society”. The mid-1960s was a period of intense legislating and investment in socialprogrammes that rivalled, and some would say surpassed, the New Deal. President Johnson’s first State of the Union address in January 1964 left no one in any doubt as to what his priorities were when he launched “an unconditional war on poverty in America”. The ensuing Economic Opportunity Act led to the establishment of a range of initiatives, from the launching of a domestic version of the Peace Corps and work training programmes to giving loans to rural and small businesses. He then pushed through a more ambitious Civil Rights Bill than the one to which Kennedy had finally committed himself, before winning the White House in his own right in November 1964.

The elections were a crushing defeat for the Republicans. Arizona senator Barry Goldwater ran a very conservative campaign, criticising civil rights measures and other liberal legislation as an attack on individual rights while suggesting that Johnson was timid in foreign affairs and that the use of nuclear weapons was not all that bad an idea. Johnson won an impressive 61 per cent of the popular vote and was able to claim a clear mandate for his own programme, the Great Society.

Johnson’s aim was to give people a “hand-up” （as opposed to “hand-out”） in helping themselves out of poverty. Medical cover for the elderly and low-waged was guaranteed by the state and the introduction of the Food Stamp programme aimed to reduce malnutrition. Houses were built, cities were remodelled and local citizens were encouraged to participate in community-based projects. Federal aid was provided to elementary and secondary schools and pre-school was promoted through the “Head Start” programme.

Economic growth helped fund this massive increase in government spending, but America’s ever increasing involvement in Vietnam and the economic problems of the late 1960s took their toll on the Great Society as well as the President himself. Millions had been helped out of poverty but America was gripped by a sense of disillusionment. Civil rights riots, student protests, anti-war campaigns and a burgeoning counter-culture provided the backdrop to the latter half of the 1960s. President Johnson looked on bewildered by what he saw and taken aback by the apparent ingratitude of the people he had served for so long and so well.

6.2　The Causes and Consequences of Watergate

The political scandal that became known as Watergate was much more than a botched break-in at Democratic headquarters by people acting on behalf of President Nixon. In many ways it represents the zenith of an increase in executive power that had been under way for decades as the White House assumed more power over the governance of the United States.However, under Nixon the power of the Presidency went beyond accepted norms and took on an imperial feel as he sought to undermine challenges to his administration. The reasons for these transgressions can be partly explained by the social unrest at the time, which led Nixon to believe that America was under attack from within. But, arguably, they are more firmly rooted in the psyche of Nixon himself and his immediate advisers. In seeing opposition to his policies as a threat to national security, Nixon demonstrated his over-inflated opinions of self-worth and his resorting to underhand dealings illustrated a suspicious state of mind.

For the 1972 elections Nixon created a separate campaign group entitled the Committee to Re-elect the President （CREEP）. Given the absence of an effective opposition this appears to have been a move based on fear rather than reality. With a fund of millions, much of which allegedly came from illegal contributions, they worked to secure Nixon’s re-election in November. The break-in at the Watergate building occurred on 17 June 1972. Five men were apprehended while adjusting eavesdropping equipment in the Democratic Party headquarters. It was not headline news as a White House connection was not apparent and no one outside of Nixon’s circle could have guessed what the story would become.

Over the coming months investigations by Congress, the federal judiciary and the Washington Post found evidence and testimony that linked the burglars to CREEP. It transpired that Nixon had not known of the break-in but had authorised a cover-up, which involved the manipulation and obstruction of the CIA and FBI. By July 1974 time was running out for Nixon. Tape-recordings existed of every conversation held within the Oval Office but Nixon had resisted their release by claiming executive privilege. In a unanimous decision, the Supreme Court demanded that they be handed over. The House voted three formal articles of impeachment against Nixon for the cover-up and abuse of office.

The most obvious consequence of the Watergate scandal was the resignation of President Nixon. It transpired that the Nixon administration had repeatedly resorted to dirty tricks and what can be deemed abuses of office, of which the break-in and the cover-up represented the final acts. However, the most significant impact of Watergate was the damage that it did to the office of the Presidency itself rather than just the incumbent who had created the scandal.

The fallout from Watergate was not confined within Washington D.C.’s Beltway. It spread out across the nation invoking even greater levels of cynicism and mistrust of politicians within the American people. Can it be said that anything positive arose from Watergate? The suffix “gate” subsequently entered the English language for scandals involving politicians（Irangate, Monicagate） thus ensuring the episode will remain in public consciousness. And atleast America could console itself that the Constitution’s checks and balances were demonstrated to be working well in the end.