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Free elementary education was introduced in England in 1870; secondary schools were fee-paying until 1944. 80% of children left after elementary education, which after 1918 finished at 14. The 1944 Education Act introduced free secondary education.

The dominant principle was the pursuit of equality. The system was based on a “tripartite”structure, distinguishing grammar, technical and secondary modern. Within these schools there was to be “parity of esteem”. In practice, there were few technical schools, which meant the system was more “bipartite” than “tripartite”. Since grammar schools were selective, and secondary moderns took the rest, there was never “parity of esteem”.

Non-selective or “comprehensive” schools were introduced gradually, but comprehensive education became government policy in the 1960s. The arguments for and against comprehensive education have been confused with other arguments about educational methods and the purposes of education. The main arguments for comprehensives are they reduce the likelihood of discrimination or disadvantage on the basis of class, and that they improve the prospects of children of middling ability. The main argument against is that the selective system may be more consistent with the idea of equality of opportunity. Working class children who went to grammar schools did better than those who go now to comprehensive schools.

A series of conservative critiques of the education system in the 1970s argued that

● the abandonment of selection had been destructive;

● discipline in schools had been eroded; and

● new teaching methods had failed.

By contrast, the schools inspectorate （subsequently Ofsted in England and Wales） made a very different set of criticisms of schooling:

● Comprehensives had imitated grammar schools instead of developing their own kind of curriculum.

● Exams dominated the curriculum unreasonably.

● Virtually all schools let down the less able pupils.

Most schools have no problem of discipline （though Ofsted reports comment on some deterioration in standards in secondary schools）. The most common problem, identified in afifth of schools, is truancy which is condoned by parents. 5.2 Reforms in Education

There have been three main trends in recent reforms.

● Centralisation. The Conservative government in the 1980s and 1990s introduced national assessments, and for the first time a national curriculum, shifting the locus of control from the school to the government.

● Assessment by outcomes. A series of measures have emphasised outcomes, measured in targets and performance criteria, rather than educational processes. This reflects a more general trend in government. The national assessments, and intermittent use of league tables, are examples.

● The use of “initiatives”. “Initiatives” have the advantage, for government, that they allow for earmarked funding—the money cannot be used for other purposes—and that they allow governments to be selective in what they pay for and where. There has also been a plethora of further initiatives geared to greater inclusion, employability and “lifelong learning”. There has been some criticism of potential “initiative overload”.

The same trends are apparent in Scottish education as in England and Wales.

1. Beveridge 贝弗里奇（1879－1963），是福利国家的理论建构者之一，他于1942年发表《社会保险及相关服务》（Social Insurance and Allied Service），也称《贝弗里奇报告》，提出建立“社会权利”新制度，包括失业及无生活能力之公民权、退休金、教育及健康保障等理念。他是自由主义者，主张市场经济。他于1944年发表《自由社会的全面就业》一书，主张由国家及市场导向的私人企业来联合运作，对当代社会福利政策及健保制度深具影响。

2. Beveridge report《贝弗里奇报告——社会保险和相关服务》，是影响整个世界社会保障制度发展的经典著作，它是社会保障发展史上具有划时代意义的著作。曾影响英国、欧洲乃至整个世界的社会保障制度建设和发展进程，被业内人士视为福利国家的奠基石和现代社会保障制度建设的里程碑，为无数的经济学家和社会保障工作者所推崇、研究和学习借鉴，对整个世界的社会保障制度建设产生了巨大的影响。

3. National Insurance国民保险法，基本采取贝弗里奇报告的建议，规定参保人必须按照年龄、性别和婚姻及就业状况不同缴费，在业人员待遇按照同等比例确定，失业、生育、疾病、丧偶和退休等各项福利待遇都是如此。

4. NHS，即英国国家医疗服务系统（National Health Service），救济贫民的选择性原则，而且提倡了普遍性原则。凡有收入的英国公民都必须参加社会保险，按统一的标准缴纳保险费，按统一的标准享受有关福利，而不问收入多少，福利系统由政府统一管理实行。NHS 实行分级保健制：一级保健，称为基础保健，是 NHS 的主体，由家庭诊所和社区诊所等构成， NHS 资金的75%用于这部分；二级保健：是指医院，负责重病和手术治疗，以及统筹调配医疗资源等。在建立之初， NHS曾经对改善人民的健康状况起到了非常积极的作用，并受到了社会的广泛欢迎。但是 NHS 面临的问题和矛盾也越来越突出，资金不足和效率低成为最主要的问题。随着人口的增加和健康质量要求的提高，NHS 的医疗服务远远不能满足人们的医疗需求。而庞大的机构造成 NHS 内部资源严重浪费、效率低、医护人员的医护积极性严重下降，人们对 NHS的不满与日俱增。

I. Define the following terms.

1. English Poor Laws

2. Jobseeker’s Allowance

II. Fill in the blanks according to the text.

1. The Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601 provided for_____ , _____, _____ .

2. The Labour Government in 1945 introduced three key acts_____, _____ ,_____ .

3. The key elements of the “Welfare State” were understood as being__________.

4. Free elementary education was introduced in England in; secondary schools were fee-paying until__________. The 1944 Education Act introduced__________.