Text A　What to Be Communicated During Negotiation？

Reduced to its essence，negotiation is a form of interpersonal communication.Communication processes，both verbal and nonverbal，are critical to achieving negation goals and to resolving conflicts.

But some research has suggested receiving too much information during negotiation may actually be detrimental to negotiators；this is sometimes called the information-is-weakness effect.Negotiators who know the complete preferences of both parties may have more difficulty determining fair outcomes than negotiators who do not have this information.There is evidence that having more information does not automatically translate into better negotiation outcomes.One study found that the amount of information exchanged did not improve the overall accuracy of the parties'perceptions of each other's preferences.The influence of the exchange of accurate information on negotiation outcomes is not as direct as people might expect—that is，simply exchanging information does not automatically lead to better understanding of the other party.

Then，what major points should be mentioned when negotiators are communicating with each other？Here follows a discussion of five different categories of communication that take place during negotiations.

1.Offers，counteroffers，and motives

Among the most important communications in negotiation are those that convey offers and counteroffers.Bargainers have definite preferences and exhibit rational behavior by acting in accordance with those preferences.A negotiator's preferences reflect in good measure his or her underlying motivations，which are also communicated during a negotiation，and they can have a powerful influence on the actions of the other party and on negotiation outcomes.A communicative framework for negotiation is based on the assumptions that①the communication of offers is a dynamic process（the offers change or shift over time）；②the offer process is interactive（bargainers influence each other）；③various internal and external factors（e.g.，time limitations，reciprocity norms，alternatives，constituency pressures）drive the interaction.In other words，the offercounteroffer process is dynamic and interactive，and subject to situational and environmental constraints.This process constantly revises the parameters of the negotiation，eventually narrowing the bargaining range and guiding the discussion toward a settlement point.

2.Information about alternatives

Communication in negotiation is not limited to the exchange of offers and counteroffers，however.Another important aspect that has been studied is how sharing information with the other party influences the negotiation process.For instance，is simply having a best alternative to a negotiated agreement（BATNA）sufficient to give a negotiator an advantage over the other party？Should one's BATNA be communicated to the other person？Research suggests that the existence of a BATNA changes several things in a negotiation:①compared to negotiators without attractive BATNAs，negotiators with attractive BATNAs set higher reservation prices for themselves than their counterparts did；②negotiators whose counterparts have attractive BATNAs set lower reservation points for themselves；③when both parties are aware of the attractive BATNA that one of the negotiator has，that negotiator receives a more positive negotiation outcome.Thus，negotiators with an attractive BATNA should tell the other party about it if they expect to receive its full benefits.We hasten to add that the style and tone used to convey information about an attractive BATNA matters.Politely（even subtly）making the other party aware of one's good alternative can provide leverage without alienating the other party.On the other hand，waving a good BATNA in the other party's face in an imposing or condescending manner may be construed as aggressive and threatening.

3.Information about outcomes

Researcher Leigh Thompson and her colleagues examined the effects of sharing information on negotiators'evaluations of their own success.The study focused on how winners and losers evaluated their negotiation outcomes（winners were defined as negotiators who received more points in the negotiation simulation）.Thompson and her colleagues found that winners and losers evaluated their own outcomes equally when they did not know how well the other party had done，but if they found out that the other negotiator had done better，or was simply pleased with his or her outcome，then negotiators felt less positive about their own outcome.Another study suggests that even when negotiators learn that the other party did relatively poorly，they are less satisfied with the outcome than when they have no comparison information.Taken together，these findings suggest that negotiators should be cautious about sharing their outcomes or even their positive reactions to outcomes with the other party，especially if they are going to negotiate with that party again in the future.

4.Social accounts

Another type of communication that occurs during negotiation consists of the“social accounts”that negotiators use to explain things to the other party，especially when negotiators need to justify bad news.Three types of explanations are important:①explanations of mitigating circumstances，where negotiators suggest that they had no choice in taking the positions they did；②explanations of exonerating circumstances，where negotiators explain their positions from a broader perspective，suggesting that while their current position may appear negative，it derives from positive motives（e.g.，an honest mistake）；③reframing explanations，where outcomes can be explained by changing the context（e.g.，short-term pain for long-term gain）.Negotiators who use multiple explanations are more likely to have better outcomes，and the negative effects of poor outcomes can be alleviated by communicating explanations for them.

5.Communication about process

Lastly，some communication is about the negotiation process itself—how well it is going or what procedures might be adopted to improve the situation.Some of this communication takes the form of seemingly trivial“small talk that breaks the ice or builds rapport between negotiators.Clearly，though，some communication about process is not just helpful，but critical，as when conflict intensifies and negotiators run the risk of letting hostilities overtake progress.One strategy involves calling attention to the other party's contentious actions and explicitly labeling the process as counterproductive.Negotiators seeking to break out of a conflict spiral should resist the natural urge to reciprocate contentious communication from the other party.Negotiators，like other busy humans，may be tempted to forge ahead with offers and counteroffers in pursuit of an outcome rather than pause and“waste”time to discuss a process gone sour.Sometimes that break in the substantive conversation and attention to process is precisely what's needed.（1053 words）