注释
社会科学期刊上登载的文章不适合被公众消费,它们也本能地拒绝成为公众消费品。在这些作者眼中,学术文章的读者群大多是抱着敌意而来,即便没有敌意,也至少是抱着疑虑。所以作者们不会费尽心思去吸引读者,更别说去讨好读者了。他们只希望读者能放他们生路。因此,比起拜读作者的作品,我更愿意与作者进行直接交流,因为这能让我对他们的学术观点有一个更清晰、更直接的认识,一份让人感到愉快的领悟——当然,文章我是一定要读的。
特沃斯基和卡尼曼的学术文章却是个很特殊的例外。尽管他们的研究只针对非常有限的读者群,但是他们好像预感到,未来会有来自各个领域的人成为他们的忠实读者。丹尼尔的著作《思考,快与慢》就是一本针对普通人的书,普通读者从中受益良多。实际上,我曾亲眼见证丹尼尔为这本书呕心沥血,耗费数年时间。我还有幸读过他初稿中的部分章节。丹尼尔的文字和他的言谈一样,风趣十足。然而每隔几个月,他就会绝望地想要彻底放弃写作——在他自毁名誉之前。为了阻止书稿的出版,他曾出钱给朋友,让他去找些人来说服自己不要出书。正式出版后,该书登上了《纽约时报》的畅销书榜单。有一次,他遇到了另一个朋友,据这个朋友说,他从没见过哪个作者对自己的成功抱这样奇怪的态度。“你不会相信发生了什么,”丹尼尔一脸狐疑地对他说,“《纽约时报》的那些人弄错了,他们把我的书放进了畅销书榜单!”过了几个星期,他又一次碰到那个朋友。“太难以置信了,”丹尼尔说,“《纽约时报》那帮人把我的书放进了畅销书榜单,现在只能将错就错了!”
衷心建议我的读者们也去读一读丹尼尔的大作。对于热爱心理学的读者,我还要推荐另外两本书,是它们让我进入了这个领域。一本是八卷本的《心理学百科全书》,它会帮你解答所有有关心理学的问题,语言清晰直白。另一本是九卷本的(还在扩充)《心理学史》,它能帮你解答有关心理学家的所有问题,尽管语言不如第一本那么简单明了。这部巨著的第一卷是在1930年出版的,之后陆续出版了后续卷章,在心理学家的大力推动下,新内容还在被源源不断地补充进去。
当然,在完成本书的过程中,我参考的书籍远不止于此。以下就将所有文献逐一列出。
引言 历史弥新的问题:思维在做什么
Thaler,Richard H.,and Cass R.Sunstein.“Who's on First.”New Republic,August 31,2003. https://newrepublic.com/article/61123/whos-fi rst.
第一章 NBA的数据模型:达里尔·莫雷
Rutenberg,Jim. “The Republican Horse Race Is Over,and Journalism Lost.”New York Times,May 9,2016.
第二章 局外人:丹尼尔·卡尼曼
Meehl,Paul E. Clinical versus Statistical Prediction. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1954.
——.“Psychology:Does Our Heterogeneous Subject Matter Have Any Unity?”Minnesota Psychologist 35 (1986):3-9.
第三章 局内人:阿莫斯·特沃斯基
Edwards,Ward. “The Theory of Decision Making.”Psychological Bulletin 51,no. 4 (1954):380-417. http://worthylab.tamu.edu/courses_fi les/01_edwards1954.pdf.
Guttman,Louis. “What Is Not What in Statistics.”J ournal of the Royal Statistical Society 26,no. 2 (1977):81-107. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2987957.
May,Kenneth. “A Set of Independent Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Simple Majority Decision.”Econometrica 20,no. 4 (1952):680-84.
Rosch,Eleanor,Carolyn B. Mervis,Wayne D. Gray,David M. Johnson,and Penny Boyes-Braem. “Basic Objects in Natural Categories.”Cognitive Psychology 8 (1976):382-439. http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~msl/ courses/2223/Readings/Rosch-CogPsych1976.pdf.
Tversky,Amos. “The Intransitivity of Preferences.”Psychological Review 76 (1969):31-48.
——.“Features of Similarity.”Psychological Review 84,no.4 (1977):327-52. http://www.ai.mit.edu/projects/dm/Tversky-features.pdf.
第四章 回到以色列
Hess,Eckhard H. “Attitude and Pupil Size.”Scientific American,April1965,46-54.
Miller,George A. “The Magical Number Seven,Plus or Minus Two:Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information.”Psychological Review 63 (1956):81-97.
第五章 碰撞:小白鼠与巨蟒
Friedman,Milton. “The Methodology of Positive Economics.”In Essays in Positive Economics,edited by Milton Friedman,3-46. Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1953.
Krantz,David H.,R. Duncan Luce,Patrick Suppes,and Amos Tversky. Foundations of Measurement一Vol. Ⅰ:Additive and Polynomial Representations; Vol.Ⅱ:Geometrical,Threshold,and Probabilistic Representations; Vol Ⅲ:Representation,Axiomatization,and Invariance.San Diego and London:Academic Press,1971-90; repr.,Mineola,NY:Dover,2007.
Tversky,Amos,and Daniel Kahneman. “Belief in the Law of Small Numbers.”Psychological Bulletin 76,no. 2 (1971):105-10.
第六章 判断的机制
Glanz,James,and Eric Lipton. “The Height of Ambition,”New York Times Magazine,September 8,2002.
Goldberg,Lewis R. “Simple Models or Simple Processes? Some Research on Clinical Judgments,”American Psychologist 23,no. 7 (1968):483-96.
——. “Man versus Model of Man:A Rationale,Plus Some Evidence,for a Method of Improving on Clinical Inferences.”Psychological Bulletin 73,no. 6 (1970):422-32.
Hof man,Paul J. “The Paramorphic Representation of Clinical Judgment.”Psychological Bulletin 57,no. 2 (1960):116-31.
Kahneman,Daniel,and Amos Tversky. “Subjective Probability:A Judgment of Representativeness.”Cognitive Psychology 3 (1972):430-54.Meehl,Paul E. “Causes and Ef ects of My Disturbing Little Book.”J ournal of Personality Assessment 50,no. 3 (1986):370-75.
Tversky,Amos,and Daniel Kahneman. “Availability:A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability.”Cognitive Psychology 5,no.2 (1973):207-32.
第七章 预测的机制
Fischhof,Baruch.“An Early History of Hindsight Research.”Social Cognition 25,no.1(2007):10-13.
Howard,R.A.,J.E.Matheson,and D.W.North.“The Decis ion to Seed Hurricanes.”Science176 (1972):1191-1202.http://www.wamemorth.net/hurricanes.pdf.
Kahneman,Daniel,and Amos Tversky.“On the Psychology of Prediction.”Psychological Review 80,no.4 (1973):237-51.
Meehl,Paul E.“Why I Do Not Attend Case Conferences.”In Psychodiagnos is:Selected Papers,edited by Paul E.Meehl,225-302.Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1973.
第八章 医生的思维偏误
Redelmeier,Donald A.,Joel Katz,and Daniel Kahneman.“Memories of Colonoscopy:A Randomized Trial,”Pain104,nos.1-2 (2003):187-94.
Redelmeier,Donald A.,and Amos Tversky.“Discrepancy between Medical Decisions for Individual Patients and for Groups.”New England Journal of Medicine 322 (1990):1162-64.
——.Letter to the editor.New England Journal of Medicine 323 (1990):923.http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/NEJM199009273231320.
——.“On the Belief That A rthritis Pa in Is Re lated to the Weather.”Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 93,no.7 (1996):2895-96.http://www.pnas.org/content/93/7/2895.full.pdf.
Tversky,Amos,and Daniel Kahneman.“Judgment under Uncertainty:Heuristics and Biases.”Science185 (1974):1124-31.
第九章 心理学勇士的诞生
Allais,Maurice.“Le Comportement de1'homme rationnel devant le risque:critique des postulats et axiomes de l'école américaine.”Econometrica 21,no.4(1953):503-46.English summary:https://goo.gl/cUvOVb.
Bernoulli,Daniel.“Specimen Theoriae Novae de Mensura Sortis,”Commentarii Academiae Scientiarum Imperialis Petropolitanae,Tomus V [Papers of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in Petersburg,Vol.V],1738,175-92.Dr.Louise Sommer of American University did apparently the first translation into English:for Econometrica 22,no.1(1954):23-36.See also Savage (1954)and Coombs,Dawes,and Tversky(1970).
Coombs,Clyde H.,Robyn M.Dawes,and Amos Tversky.Mathematical Psychology:An Elementary Introduction.Englewood Clif s,NJ:Prentice-Hall,1970.
Kahneman,Daniel.Thinking,Fast and Slow.New York:Farrar,Straus and Giroux,2011.The Jack and Jill scenario in chapter 9 of the present book is from p.275 of the hardcover edition.
von Neumann,John,and Oskar Morgenstern.Theory of Games and Economic Behavior.Princeton,NJ:Princeton University Press,1944; 2nd ed.,1947.
Savage,Leonard J.The Foundations of Statistics.New York:Wiley,19 54.
第十章 孤立效应:风险决策
Kahneman,Daniel,and Amos Tversky.“Prospect Theory:An Analysis of Decision under Risk.”Econometrica 47,no.2 (1979):263-91.
第十一章 反事实思维的谜团
Hobson,J.Al an,and Robert W.McCarley.“The Brain as a Dream State Generator:An Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis of the Dream Process.”American Journal of Psychiatry134,no.12 (1977):1335-48.
——.“The Neurobiological Origins of Psychoanalytic Dream Theory.”
American J ournal of Psychiatry134,no.11(1978):1211-21.
Kahneman,Daniel.“The Psychology of Possible Worlds.”Katz-Newcomb Lecture,April1979.
Kahneman,Daniel,and Amos Tversky.“The Simulation Heuristic.”In J udgment under Uncertainty:Heuristics and Biases,edited by Daniel Kahneman,Paul Slovic,and Amos Tversky,3-22.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1982.
LeCompte,Tom.“The Disorient Express.”Air & Space,September 2008,38-43.http://www.airspacemag.com/military-aviation/the-disorientexpress-474780/.
Tversky,Amos,and Daniel Kahneman.“The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice.”Science 211,no.4481(1981):453-58.
第十二章 可能性之疑云
Cohen,L.Jonathan.“On the Psychology of Prediction:Whose Is the Fallacy?”Cognition 7,no.4 (1979):385-407.
——.“Can Human Irrationality Be Experimentally Demonstrated?”The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 4,no.3 (1981):317-31.Followed by thirty-nine pages of letters,including Persi Diaconis and David Freedman,“The Persistence of Cognitive Illusions:A Rejoinder to L.J.Cohen,”333-34,and a response by Cohen,331-70.
——.Knowledge and Language:Selected Essays of L.Jonathan Cohen,edited by James Logue.Dordrecht,Netherlands:Springer,2002.
Gigerenzer,Gerd.“How to Make Cognitive Illusions Disappear:Beyond‘Heuristics and Biases.’”In European Review of Social Psychology,Vol.2,edited by Wolfgang Stroebe and Miles Hewstone,83-115.Chichester,UK:Wiley,1991.
——.“On Cognitive Illusions and Rationality.”In Pro bability and Rationality:Studies on L.J onathan Cohen s Philosophy of Science,edited by Ellery Eells and Tomasz Maruszewski,225-49.Poznań Studies in the Philosophy of the Sciences and the Humanities,Vol.21.Amsterdam:Rodopi,1991.
——.“The Bounded Rationality of Probabilistic Mental Models.”In Rationality:Psychological and Philosophical Perspectives,edited by Ken Manktelow and David Over,284-313.London:Routledge,1993.
——.“Why the Distinction between Single-Event Probabilities and Frequencies Is Important for Psychology (and Vice Versa).”In Subj ective Probability,ed.George Wright and Peter Ayton,129-61.Chichester,UK:Wiley,1994.
——.“On Narrow Norms and Vague Heuristics:A Reply to Kahneman and Tversky.”Psychological Review103 (1996):592-96.
——.“Ecological Intelligence:An Adaptation for Frequencies.”In The Evolution of Mind,edited by Denise Dellarosa Cummins and Colin Allen,9-29.New York:Oxford University Press,1998.
Kahneman,Daniel,and Amos Tversky.“Discussion:On the Interpretation of Intuitive Probability:A Reply to Jonathan Cohen.”Cognition 7,no.4(1979):409-11.
Tversky,Amos,and Daniel Kahneman.“Extensional versus Intuitive Reasoning:The Conjunction Fallacy in Probability Judgment.”Psychological Review 90,no.4 (1983):293-315.
——.“Advances in Prospect Theory.”Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 5 (1992):297-323.http://psych.fullerton.edu/mbirnbaum/psych466/articles/tversky_kahneman_jru_92.pdf.
Vranas,Peter B.M.“Gigerenzer's Normative Critique of Kahneman and Tversky.”Cognition 76 (2000):179-93.
终篇 葬礼与诺奖
Redelmeier,Dona ld A.,and Robert J.Tibs hira ni.“A s s ociation between Cellular-Telephone Calls and Motor Vehicle Collisions.”New England J ournal of Medicine 336 (1997):453-58.http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199702133360701#t=article.
Thaler,Richard.“Toward a Positive Theory of Consumer Choice.”Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization1(1980):39-60.http://www.eief.it/butler/fi les/2009/11/thaler80.pdf.
其 他
Kazdin,Alan E.,ed.Encyclopedia of Psychology.8 vols.Washington,DC:American Psychological Association,and New York:Oxford University Press,2000.
Murchison,Carl,Gardner Lindzey,et al.,eds.A History of Psychology in Autobiography.Vols.Ⅰ-Ⅸ.Worcester,MA:Clark University Press,and Washington,DC:American Psychological Association,1930—2007.