1.0.2　The Cognitive Theory

（1）Principal features

This theory or method has been interpreted some as a‘modified，up-to-date grammar-translation theory’（Carroll，1966a）and by others，as a modified，up-to-date direct-method approach.In its recent forms，as expressed by Diller（1971）or Chastain（1976），it lays emphasis on the conscious acquisition of language as a meaningful system and it seeks a basis in cognitive psychology and in transformational grammar.

（2）Objectives

Broadly speaking，the goal of cognitive teaching is the same as that proposed by Audio-Lingual theorists（Chastain，1976：146-7），but certain differences in immediate objectives are apparent.Cognitive theory is less concerned with the primacy of the Audio-Lingual skills，instead it is explained as a coherent and meaningful system，a kind of consciously acquired‘competence’which the learner can then put to use in real-life situations.Carroll defines the objective in these terms：The theory attaches more importance to the learner's understanding of the structure of the foreign language than to the facility in using that structure，since it is believed that provided the student has a proper degree of cognitive control over the structures of the language，facility will develop automatically with use of the language in meaningful situations.

（3）Techniques

The techniques are characterized by Carroll（1966a）as follows：‘...learning a language is a process of acquiring conscious control of the phonological，grammatical，and lexical patterns of the second language，largely through study and analysis of these patterns as a body of knowledge.’

In other words，the cognitive approach does not reject，disguise or de-emphasize the conscious teaching of grammar or of language rules.It does not avoid the presentation of reading and writing in association with listening and speaking.Instead of expecting automatic command of the language and habit formation from intensive drill，it seeks the intellectual understanding by the learner of the language as a system；and practice of meaningful material is regarded as being of greater merit than the drive towards automatic control.The behavioristic view of learning in terms of conditioning，shaping，reinforcement，habit-formation，and overlearning has been replaced by an emphasis on rule learning，meaningful practice，and creativity.

（4）Theoretical assumptions

Like the Audio-Lingual Method，Cognitive Theory looks for a rationale in linguistics and psychology.Rejecting behaviorism and structural linguistics，it seeks in transformational grammar and cognitive psychology a basis for second language teaching.Cognitive Theory reflects the theoretical reorientation in linguistics and psycholinguistics that was initiated by Chomsky in the sixties.Diller（1978）has formulated four principles of cognitivism that contrast with the five principles by which Moulton（1961：82-109）had characterized audiolingualism.

（a）‘A living language is characterized by rule-governed creativity’.This principle clearly based on two concepts derived from Chomsky—language is rule-governed and creative which implies the teaching of a language：as a consciously learnt system.

（b）‘The rules of grammar are，psychologically real’（op.cit.：26）.The user of a given language gives evidence of knowing the rules of the language by applying them automatically.The fact that the rules are applied automatically，however，does not mean that they must be learnt automatically.A new language，like the rules of a game of chess，are best learned in conjunction with demonstration and practice of the action（op.cit.：29）.That is to say，the learning of a skill can be deliberate；it becomes automatic through use.

（c）‘Man is specially equipped to learn languages’（op.cit.：29）.‘Learning language is a human characteristic.It is biologically founded in man.But it is not confined to childhood.The capacities of children have been overrated，those of adults，underrated.Language learning can occur at any time in life in a situation of meaningful use’（op.cit.：30）.It is an activity of the learner，not something that is‘just impressed upon us from the outsider’（op.cit.：234）.

（d）‘A living language is a language in which we can think’（op.cit.：34）.Language is bound up with meaning and thinking.Learning a language involves learning to think in that language.‘Meaningful practice rather than drill is the only way which can come about’（op.cit.：37）.