4.2.1 中国文化的内部层面
4.2.1.1 儒家内部的对话:问答式
应兰登书屋的邀约,林语堂于1938年译创了The Wisdom of Confucius一书,这是他系统地向西方读者介绍儒家思想的第一部英文著作。林语堂的译创目的除了因为儒家学说代表了中国哲学的主流思想之外,更重要的是,它在现代社会的生存价值遇到了新的挑战,即来自西方工业时代以来的思想和生活(Lin,1938:4)。但林语堂认为,儒家思想若看作是恢复封建社会的政治制度自是过时,若视为一种人道主义文化和一种社会生活的基本观点,仍不失为真理,因此,西方读者可通过儒家思想来了解中国人的民族精神和风俗习惯,从中受益(同上:4-5)。在该书的编排上,林语堂没有按照传统四书五经的书写体例进行翻译,而是从《论语》《大学》《中庸》《礼记》等儒家经典里选取相关材料,按主题重新划分,这种方式既可以对相关概念进行系统阐释,又是对儒家思想的重新梳理,更是满足了西方读者的阅读习惯,即按照一种连贯的话语方式(a connected discourse)来论述(同上:39)。比如,《论语》是记载孔子和弟子言行的语录体散文集,林语堂翻译了原文四分之一的内容,并根据思想性质重新编排,突出孔子和弟子之间的问答式对话,以“使读者对相关内容有更好的理解”(in order to give the reader a better conception of the contents)(同上:157)。例如颜渊问仁这一段:
(44)颜渊问仁。子曰:“克己复礼为仁,一日克己复礼,天下归仁焉,为仁由己,而由人乎哉!”
子曰:“恭近礼,俭近仁,信近情。敬让以行此,虽有过,不其甚矣。夫恭寡过,情可信,俭易容也。以此失之者,不亦鲜乎?”(《礼记》三十二)(Vol.22 1994:123)
Yen Huei asked about true manhood,and Confucius said,“True manhood consists in realizing your true self and restoring the moral order or discipline(or li). If a man can just for one day realize his true self,and restore complete moral discipline,the world will follow him. To be a true man depends on yourself. What has it got to do with others?”
Confucius said,“Humility is near to moral discipline(or li);simplicity of character is near to true manhood;and loyalty is near to sincerity of heart. If a man will carefully cultivate these things in his conduct,he may still err a little,but he won’t be far from the standard of true manhood. For with humility or a pious attitude,a man seldom commits errors;with sincerity of heart,a man is generally reliable;and with simplicity of character,he is usually generous. You seldom make a mistake when you start off from thesepoints. ”(Liki,Chapter XXXII. )(Lin,1938:186-187)
这段话是弟子颜渊向孔子请教什么是“仁”,这是儒家学说里的一个重要概念。孔子认为“仁”首先要做到克己复礼,克制自己,使自己的行为符合礼的要求。为了更好地让读者理解这个概念的丰富性,林语堂又从《礼记》里选取关于“仁”的阐述并翻译出来,进一步指出“俭近仁”“俭易容”的道理。再如鲁哀公问政其中的一段:
(45)哀公问政。子曰:“故为政在人,取人以身,修身以道,修道以仁。仁者,人也,亲亲为大。义者,宜也,尊贤为大。亲亲之杀,尊贤之等,礼所生也。”(Vol.22 1994:88)
Duke Ai(ruler of Lu,Confucius’native state)asked what constituted good government.
Confucius replied:“The conduct of government,therefore,depends upon the men. The right men are obtained by the ruler’s personal character. To cultivate his personal character,the ruler must use the moral law(tao). To cultivate the moral law,the ruler must use the moral sense(jen,or principles of true manhood).
The moral sense is the characteristic attribute of man. To feel natural affection for those nearly related to us is the highest expression of the moral sense. The sense of justice(yi or propriety)is the recognition of what is right and proper. To honor those who are worthier than ourselves is the highest expression of the sense of justice. The relative degrees of natural affection we ought to feel for those who are nearly related to us and the relative grades of honor we ought to show to those worthier than ourselves:these give rise to the forms and distinctions in social life(li,or principles of social order). ”(Lin,1938:116-117)
这段话是鲁哀公向孔子请教为政之道。孔子指出为政在于用人,而获取人才的方法在于统治者的修身和修道。通过阐述如何修身和修道,孔子进一步引出了儒家思想中的重要概念如“仁”“义”和“礼”。这些概念都具有多义性,因此除了翻译原文之外,林语堂又用括号的方式将另一种含义解释出来,方便读者领会。
林语堂对儒家学说重新整理和编辑,采用这种问答和讨论的对话形式,向西方读者译创了中国文化中主流的哲学思想。而且,林语堂还特别指出,据清人袁枚的考证,为了突出孔子语录式的回答,是后人在编纂儒学时把弟子的问题部分缩短了,于是我们看到问题部分都只剩了一句话,如某某问政、某某问仁等(Lin,1938:153)。
4.2.1.2 道家内部的对话:以庄释老
林语堂认为,整个东方文学中最该先读的书是老子的《道德经》,因为它既为我们阐述了东方精神(the spirit of the Orient),又对理解中国人的行为特征非常重要(necessary to the understanding of characteristic Chinese behavior),还是治疗现代世界崇尚武力和斗争以获取权力的解毒剂(an antidote to cure this contentious modern world of its inveterate belief in force and struggle for power)(Lin,1942:579)。因此,林语堂完整地翻译了老子的《道德经》,将道家思想的代表作系统地介绍给西方读者。《道德经》是西方翻译得最多的中国典籍,在林语堂之前就已经有12种英译本和9种德译本,在这些译本中,林语堂认为约翰·吴(John C. H. Wu)和亚瑟·韦利(Arthur Waley)的译本最好(同上:582)。与其他译者不同的是,林语堂做了一次全新的尝试,即在翻译《道德经》的同时,又翻译了《庄子》,用庄子的思想来解释老子的思想。林语堂认为了解老子最好的方法就是同时阅读《庄子》,因为庄子是老子最优秀的弟子,是最伟大的道家代表人物,在时代上更接近老子思想的发展体系,而且由于很少有人将中国思想介绍给西方,所以翻译老子这样有价值的工作,经由庄子的解释,比经由现代作家之笔更易受到读者欣赏(Lin,1948:22,35)。因此,在The Wisdom of Laotse(1948)一书里,我们听到了两种声音的对话,第一种是《道德经》的原文,第二种是庄子的解释。例如:
(46)无名,天地之始;有名,万物之母(2)。故常无,以观其妙;常有,欲以观其徼。此两者,同出而异名,同谓之玄。玄之又玄,众妙之门。(Vol.24 1994:36)
The Nameless is the origin of Heaven and Earth;
The Named is the Mother of All Things.
Therefore:
Oftentimes,one strips oneself of passion
In order to see the Secret of Life;
Oftentimes,one regards life with passion
In order to see its manifest forms.
These two(the Secret and its manifestations)
Are(in their nature)the same;
They are given different names
When they become manifest.
They may both be called the Cosmic Mystery;
Reaching from the Mystery into the Deeper Mystery
Is the Gate to the Secret of All Life.(Lin,1948:51)
这段话是老子对作为宇宙实体及万物本原的“道”的解释,反映了老子对生命以及宇宙的一种神秘主义哲学观。林语堂将原文翻译成诗歌形式,保留了老子箴言隽语式的话语风格和句子节奏,体现了他所说的意境翻译。但是,诗歌形式无法使西方读者完全理解“道”这个哲学概念,需要进一步详细解释。因此,林语堂在译文之后,又将庄子的阐述翻译过来,作为对老子“道”的概念的解释和补充:
(47)出无本,入无窍;有所出而无窍者有实。有实而无乎处,有长而无乎本剽。有实而无乎处者,宇也。有长而无本剽者,宙也。有乎生,有乎死,有乎出,有乎入,入出而无见其形,是谓天门。天门者,无有也,万物出乎无有。(陈鼓应注译,2007:705)
When(Tao)appears,one cannot see its root;when(Tao)disappears,one cannot see its concrete forms. It has substance,but is not confined in space;it has length,but its source cannot be traced. Since it can manifest itself and yet disappear without concrete forms,it must have substance. Having substance and yet being not confined—that is space. Having length and yet being without source—that is time. And so there is life and death,and appearance and disappearance. To appear and disappear without showing its form—that is the Gate of Heaven. The Gate of Heaven signifies non-being. All things come from non-being. (Lin,1948:55)
从庄子的阐释里可以看出,庄子通过对“宇宙”的定义和对“有无”“生死”的讨论将老子“道”的概念进一步明确化了,而“天门”即是老子所说的“众妙之门”,就是一切奥妙的门径,是万物所出的“道”。作为万物本原的“道”,“出乎无有”,“无”和“有”即是“道”由无形质向有形质的活动过程。而且,庄子是以散文体写作,这种风格比老子的箴言体显然更利于对哲学概念展开讨论,也更利于读者的理解。通过庄子的解释和补充,西方读者对“道”这个概念有了一个明确的认识,正如林语堂所说:“老庄思想的基础和特点是相同的。不同的是:老子用格言警句(aphorisms)表达,庄子以长篇哲理散文(long,discursive philosophical essays)描述;老子凭直觉,庄子靠智慧”(同上:23)。
4.2.1.3 儒道之间的对话:以道补儒
林语堂对于道家和儒家之间的差异,提出了自己独到的见解,如“道家的人生观是消极的,儒家的人生观是积极的”,“道家代表中国思想的浪漫派,儒家代表中国思想的经典派”,“道家反映中国人的游戏状态,儒家反映中国人的工作状态”,“道家赞成自然和直觉,儒家崇尚文化和理性”等(同上:19-29)。林语堂认为儒家思想的不足之处在于太积极、太现实,缺乏想象力,而道家思想恰好可以说明中国民族性中儒家所不能满足的那一部分。因此,在The Wisdom of Laotse一书的结尾部分,林语堂选译了《庄子》里虚构的孔老会谈的内容,以“Imaginary Conversations between Laotse and Confucius”(想象的孔老会谈)为题,让老子和孔子进行了一场跨越时空的对话。在《庄子》一书里,孔子以不同的会谈方式出现了有四五十次之多,在这篇文章里,林语堂选取了七次会谈进行翻译,其中有一次是孔门弟子子贡和老子的对话。以第一篇孔子和老子讨论仁义为例:
(48)老聃曰:“请问,仁义,人之性邪?”
孔子曰:“然。君子不仁则不成,不义则不生。仁义,真人之性也,又将奚为矣?”
老聃曰:“请问,何谓仁义?”
孔子曰:“中心物恺,兼爱无私,此仁义之情也。”
老聃曰:“意,几乎后言!夫兼爱,不亦迂乎!无私焉,乃私也。夫子若欲使天下无失其牧乎?则天地固有常矣,日月固有明矣,星辰固有列矣,禽兽固有群矣,树木固有立矣。夫子亦放德而行,循道而趋,已至矣;又何偈偈乎揭仁义,若击鼓而求亡子焉?意,夫子乱人之性也!”(陈鼓应注译,2007:403-404)
“May I ask,are humanity and justice a part of the nature of man?”
“Yes,”replied Confucius. “A gentleman’s character is not complete without the principle of humanity,and his life is not correct if he does not follow the principle of justice. Humanity and justice are truly a part of the nature of man. What else can they be?”
“May I ask what you mean by humanity and justice?”said Lao Tan.
“To share the happiness with others and to love all mankind without partiality—this is the essence of humanity and justice.”
“Alas!”replied Lao Tan. “You talk like the latter-day prophets. Isn’t it abstruse to talk of love for all mankind?Impartiality implies the recognition of partiality(for individuals). If you want the world to find again its lost shepherd,remember that there is already a constant law governing heaven and earth,the sun and the moon are shining in the sky,the constellations are in their proper places,andthe fowl of the air and the beasts of the earth already thrive in flocks and herds,and trees already grow and prosper. Why don’t you just follow the natural bent of your character and the laws of Tao?Why do you create such a commotion,holding the banner of humanity and justice like one who has lost his son and is beating a drum to look for him?Alas!I am afraid you are disturbing the nature of man. ”(Lin,1948:294-295)
这段话是孔子和老子在讨论儒家的核心思想“仁义”,由于孔老会谈是由道家代表庄子所写,因此总是把老子描写成给予建议的人,而孔子是接受建议的人。通过老子对孔子仁义之说的批评,引出道家思想中“道”的概念,即顺其自然、循常道而行的道理,以道家的无为思想来修正儒家对现实的理性干预。这种对谈方式可以使西方读者看到儒道两种学说之间的差异,对中国古代的哲学思想有更为透彻的理解。