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Funing County is located in the southeast of Yunnan Province,bordering on the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.The total land area is 5,352 square kilometers while the population was around four hundred thousand at the end of 2007.There are six ethnic nationalities who have lived in the area for centuries: the Zhuang,the Han,the Yao,the Miao,the Yi and the Gelao.The ethnic minority population accounts for more than 76% of the total population.Among the ethnic minority population,the Zhuang account for 56%,the Miao are 6.8%,the Yi 3.1%,while there remain a bit more than one hundred Gelao nationality people in the county.During their long history of development,all the nationalities have lived in contact and peaceful cooperation,while maintaining the distinctive cultural characteristics of each group.

The Zhuang nationality in Funing County originated from the branch of people known to Chinese historians as the Luoyue,descendants of a group known to Chinese historians as the Baiyue.From the Qin Dynasty period through the period of the Five Dynasties and Ten States,the people now included within the official Zhuang nationality group were referred to with the names“Liao”“Pu”“Xi’ou”“Luoyue”“Li”“Hen”and“Western Barbarians”by Han Chinese historians.During the Song dynasty,Han Chinese historians used the terms“Zhuang”,or“Barbarians of the Guang(Vast)Plain”to refer to the ancestors of the Zhuang.During the Yuan Dynasty,the Zhuang of Wenshan Prefecture were divided among the“Nong people”and“Sha people”in Chinese records.The Nùng,Giáy,and Tày nationalities of Vietnam originate from the same nationality but live in different regions.These nationalities of Vietnam also have deep ancestral roots with the Dong,Bouyei and Dai nationalities of China,and are also related to the Shan,Lao,and Thai nationalities of Southeast Asia.The Zhuang people of Funing County are divided into more than ten sub-groups according to their languages,costumes or customs.These include the Bu Yue,Hei Yi,Bu Yai,Bu Ao,Bu Yang,Bu Nong,Long An,Long Yin,Long Dong,Zhe Yuan,Jia Zhou,Ma Yang,Yang Niao,etc.The dialect spoken by the Bu Yue belongs to the dialect group(or“vernacular”)labeled by linguists“Guibian,”meaning,“the edge of Guangxi”,which belongs to the Northern branch of Zhuang(Northern Taic).The dialects spoken by the other groups belong to the“Dejing”(Yang),Yongnan,and Zuojian dialect groups which belong to the Southern branch of Zhuang(Central Taic).The Bu Yue sub-group is the indigenous Zhuang people group of Funing,accounting for more than 50% of the total Zhuang population of the county.The other branches had immigrated into Funing from Guangxi at various times since the end of the Ming Dynasty(1368–1644 CE).

The rich and colorful cultures of the Zhuang have a long history that has been characterized by a quality of being compatible with and ready to absorb features of other cultures,especially that of the Han Chinese,the majority ethnicity in China.The indigenous cultural landscape of the Zhuang peoples of Funing County have been summarized using several themes: Ndoeng,meaning“forest”in Zhuang,represents Zhuang ecology,that is,the cultural value for maintaining the well-being of their natural environment.Naz,meaning“rice paddy”in Zhuang,symbolizes the Zhuang paddy-farming culture.Haeux Neu,meaning“glutinous rice”in Zhuang,symbolizes the Zhuang cuisine.The Ganlan wooden houses raised off the ground on wooden columns symbolizes the Zhuang traditional architecture.The traditional Zhuang clothing is symbolized by their elaborate brocade.The Zhuang cultural festivals are summarized by the idea of“people and deities entertaining each other”.The Zhuang poetry is symbolized by their“singing competition fairs”.Their traditional religion is represented by their“chicken bone divination”practices.

Respect for elders.When parents are forty-nine years old,children perform ceremony to bless their parents with longevity and prosperity.After this ceremony,the parents are then considered elders while the children will thereafter carefully pay attention to respect these elders and care for them.In order to preserve the health and longevity of their parents or parents-in-law,Zhuang people will not permit the elders to do heavy work and will take care of the elders for everything.Whenever butchering pigs or chickens,the soft parts of the meat,like the kidneys,internal organs,liver and the chicken breast must be kept for the elders.If a household does not have any elders,they will leave the soft meat for other elders at the same village.Such people who demonstrate this kind of filial spirit toward elders will be regarded as virtuous people.The elders will praise such people,saying that“taking care of elders accumulates good deeds to the doer's credit in the nether world”.Those few Zhuang young people who dare to mistreat elders,acting disloyally and disobediently,will be disdained by their clansmen and fellow villagers.They are even publicly criticized and discussed with disgust around the region.

Loving the young.As for the children,the Zhuang people treat boys and girls equally without discrimination.Parents give children meticulous love and patient education and seldom beat or scold their children.Customs such as decorating the children’s clothing,dyeing eggs red for the children,saving the chicken legs for children,are means by which Zhuang parents demonstrate their great love for their children.Those customs continue to be practiced and passed down.

Household traditions.It is the parents who manage the household.When the parents become old,the Zhuang say that they“no longer guard the door at sixty and are no longer in charge of the household at seventy”.Then it becomes the turn of the eldest son or daughter to manage the household,with the other siblings following his or her lead.Parents educate their children mainly by words and seldom punish children physically.They require children not to quarrel and fight with each other,not to steal,not to gamble,not to wander away from home,not to be promiscuous,not to give vent to anger,and not to slander or bully others.Zhuang people advocate the principles of family harmony,love between spouses,an industrious and frugal attitude,mutual aid among neighbors as well as among generations,and demonstrating a gentle mood and hospitable spirit.

Terms of address.Whenever younger people meet their elders,they should address the elders initially as“grandfather”“grandmother”“father”“mother”“brother”“sister-in-law”and so on.It is not permitted to address elders with the second person pronoun“you”.As for self-reference,when speaking to elders,the first-person pronoun“I”(“me”)is not permitted,rather oneself is referred to indirectly,in the third person,with regards to a relationship(“your son”),or with the term for“servant”.When elders and young people walk together,the young people should let the elders walk in front of them,with the young people helping the elders carry their things.If young people want to leave,the young people ought to face the elders and said politely“Sorry,I must leave to go to work.Please come later when convenient.”When one comes upon someone of the older generation while riding a horse on the road,the younger person ought to get off his horse and greet the older person.Those who do not follow these courtesies are labeled as being wicked people.

Mutual aid.Whenever a relative builds a house,gets married,conducts a funeral,officiates at a ceremony,gives birth,or celebrates other important events,no matter whether geographically near or not,Zhuang people will usually visit their relatives to provide assistance.They will try their best to support their relative by either giving them money or helping them mitigate troubles.This practice is called“building the bridge together to go through the great river”.Villagers also say that“the trouble of one household will cause problems for a hundred”.People help each other voluntarily,especially when there is a funeral.

Zhuang people have a monogamous marriage system of one man and one woman.From the Song Dynasty period(960–1279 CE)onward,the Zhuang have been free to intermarry with other ethnic groups,though the number of the Zhuang married to other ethnic groups is not great,both in the past and still today,except for the Zhuang living in cities.In the past,arranged marriage indeed existed but was not compulsory,for the Zhuang are a people who value courtship by antiphonal singing and through the exchange of symbolic gifts,for example,the man giving the woman thread,needles and face towels,while the woman gives the man shoes and clothes.Throughout the whole courtship process,each can freely choose his or her spouse,which has been called by Chinese sociologists“free love”or a“love marriage”.However,after they have confirmed their choice of a spouse,they must obtain the consent of their parents and brothers,as well as that of their sisters-in-law,and then they can formally make the engagement.Mostly,it is the man who proposes marriage to the woman and her family,but it can also be the woman who proposes marriage to the man and his family.In the case of the latter type of proposal,there are six necessary rites which must be performed.

“ Love marriage”.A young man and a young woman get to know each other through daily contact during the course of social activities such as market days,the Long Duan festival(a kind of Zhuang carnival),the similar Long festival,etc.They sing to each other antiphonally and send each other gifts.Often the man will send money,towels,colorful thread,bracelets and silver necklaces to the woman.After the woman accepts the gifts,she will send the man some clothes and shoes in return.A young man can send gifts to two or three different women and then select one of them as his lover and formalize their engagement after get both sides obtain their parents’ agreement.Usually,the man should visit the woman’s family first.

Proposals via a matchmaker.When the relationship of the man and woman is confirmed,they can tell their parents.The parents of the man will choose a talkative woman who already has her own children to be their matchmaker and to go to the woman’s house to propose the marriage.The matchmaker will take along a chicken,some pork meat and two or three pounds(1-1.5 kg)of rice wine for the proposal.If the woman’s parents will not allow this match,the gifts taken by the matchmaker will be returned to the man.If both the elder brother and the sister-in-law of the woman allow the marriage,the woman’s family will accept the gifts and feed the matchmaker with a feast.Further,the woman’s parents will copy out the year,month,date and time of day when the woman was born(her“eight characters”)and ask the matchmaker to take it to the man.After receiving the paper with the woman’s“eight characters”of birthdate,the man will press that paper under the incense censer on his house’s ancestor's altar(a narrow wooden table or shelf on the wall facing the main door).If nothing unfortunate occurs during the next three to five days,it is believed that the woman has good luck.Next,the man will ask a Zhuang shaman(called a Mo’gong or Boh Mo)to ensure that the“eight character”birthdates of the man and woman are compatible.If compatible,the man and woman will be considered to be engaged.If the two sets of“eight characters”are determined to be incompatible,the man will return the paper with the woman’s“eight character”birthdate to her.

Engagement.When the“eight character”birthdates of the lovers are found to be compatible,the man will select an auspicious day to officially publicize the engagement to the woman’s family.Next,the man will prepare ten pounds(5 kg)each of glutinous rice,wine and meat; a pair of chicken(one male,one female,and both must be at least three pounds,four pounds(2 kg)of sugar,and,if the man is rich,also a bracelet,ring and necklace made of gold,silver or jade.The gifts should be taken by the matchmaker to the woman’s house as“engagement announcements”while the woman will return clothing,shoes,socks and a head scarf to show that the engagement is official.From that time on,both the man and the woman should address the other’s parents as their own parents.During that period whenever there is an important festival or event(for example,a marriage,a funeral,a birthday celebration,etc.),the man should send gifts to the woman and the woman should respond by sending back some“rewards”.During the engagement announcement banquet,the two families will discuss and come to an agreement on the quantity of“betrothal gifts”.The elders of the woman’s family first propose the amount of the bride’s dowry.The matchmaker has no right to bargain about the amount because these gifts are paid by the woman’s family to the man’s family as a symbolic dowry and not a purchase price for her.The man will also not barter about the amount of the betrothal gifts that his family will pay to her family.Commonly,the woman’s side will give the man’s family a dowry more or less equal to the amount of money of the betrothal gifts given by the man’s family.If the girl’s family tries to use her as merchandise to trade for money,their conduct will be disdained by their clansmen and bring disrepute on the woman’s family.The betrothal gifts are of two kinds: large gifts and small gifts.Small betrothal gifts can be financial or material.Financial gifts might be in the range of sixty or eighty yuan(RMB),whereas material gifts would be 20 to 40 pounds(10-20 kg)of pork,wine or rice,or forty to sixty yuan’s worth of needles and thread.The Northern Zhuang speakers who call themselves Bu Yue will also give hundreds of fried sticky rice cakes or ten pounds(5 kg)of glutinous rice as part of the material gifts.The larger betrothal gifts are those used in the wedding banquet itself,such as one hundred pounds(50 kg)each of meat,wine and rice,as well as colorful glutinous rice and fried rice cakes.In the past,the bride’s side would ask for a silver necklace and a pair of silver bracelets from the bridegroom.But now those traditional gifts have been replaced by an equivalent amount of money.If either the man or the woman breaks off the engagement,an old maxim will be cited:“The money is returned if the woman is not in love [and broke the engagement],but the money is lost if the man is not in love.”The paper with“eight character”birthdate of the woman will be returned and the two people will be free to find other spouses and with no claim on the other person in the future.

Wedding.The date of the wedding must be a carefully selected auspicious day.As for the invitations to the wedding guests,the bridegroom’s family has a greater responsibility than the bride’s family.Before the wedding day,the bridegroom’s side should inform the woman the date of the wedding a few months in advance,and by that point his side ought to have paid at least half of the agreed-upon betrothal gift money.The money should be transferred by the matchmaker to the bride’s family.The bride will ask her friends for help in sewing shoes,one pair for bridegroom’s father and one pair for bridegroom’s mother.Also,the bride’s side should select an auspicious day for sewing their marriage quilt.On the wedding day,the man should prepare ten pounds(5 kg)each of wine,meat and glutinous rice,as well as two chickens,to send to the bride’s family by the matchmaker.When sewing the marriage quilt,the bride’s side should ask a woman who has lived a long life to make the first cut and sew the first stitch in order to obtain good luck and longevity.

On the wedding day,the bridegroom’s family must find a married woman who can sing and dance to be the bridesmaid.The Nong Zhuang people will find an unmarried woman to be the bridesmaid.The Sha(Bu Yei)Zhuang people need a groomsman to accompany the matchmaker and the wedding group,that is,the group that goes to the bride’s home to escort her to the wedding feast.As the wedding group walks to the bride’s house,a group of suona horn players will play the suona horn in front of the wedding group.When the group has almost arrived at the door of the bride’s house,the children will shout“Good news! Here comes the bride!”while igniting firecrackers.The bride’s front door is usually locked tightly in order to wait for the groomsman to knock on the door and shout“Open the door!”After some back and forth,questions and replies,between the groomsman and bride’s bridesmaids,the door will be opened.When the groom’s party enters the bride’s door,the bridesmaids will first bar the way and toast him with some liquor,while the groom’s party will present a red envelope filled with money to the bridesmaids so that he will be allowed to enter the door.The parents of bride will check the betrothal gifts off on their checklist,and if there is an item missing,they will call for a missing pound to be supplied or forgive the debt when appropriate.The parents of the bride will intentionally embarrass the matchmaker because the match“will not be lucky if there is no quarrel”.The bridegroom’s family also needs to prepare more than ten red envelopes with some money to give to the bridesmaids,her godfather,godmother,etc.during the course of the marriage rites such as doing the bride’s makeup,demonstrating her needlework,carrying the bride out of the house,conducting the bride to the banquet site and so forth.Each red envelope which contains a few cents or a few yuan.When he has formally received the agreements of the parents on both sides,the man can take the gifts and go into the house to entertain the guests in the wedding feast.In the past,some rich men would invite four unmarried men to be their groomsmen,to accompany the bridegroom to the bride’s house.If conditions permit,they will invite the suona players group to go together with them.The bridegroom’s side needs to write the marriage couplets,that is,the phrases of blessing,written in two couplets of seven large Chinese characters,written vertically on the red paper to be hang on opposite sides of the door of the house,with sometimes a four-character horizontal blessing over the lintel.The groom’s side will arrange the main room,decorate the house and light the red candles to wait for the bride.

The bride’s side need to find a middle-aged woman and man to represent her parents,as well as to find an“escort bridesmaid”along with two other bridesmaids to send the dowry to the bridegroom’s house.The dowry contains boxes,cabinets,mosquito nets,curtains,pillows,bed sheets,felt,pots,bowls,chopsticks,tea boards,wash basins,teapots,teacups,etc.The cloth shoes will be put in front of the ancestor altar,and during the wedding feast,the bride and her bridesmaids will send the shoes to the family members.Before early 1949,brides in poor families only needed to prepare one box,one quilt,one mosquito net and one mat.Moderately rich families would provide two of each of those things while rich families would give three or four of each.Some bride families will send an ox to the bridegroom to indicate they want their daughter to live prosperously in the bridegroom’s family.Before the bride leaves the house for the wedding night,she needs to show her makeup to every family member in the central hall of the house.The bride will sit in the middle of the house and hold the rites called“sitting by the red candle”and“wedding weeping”.The bride’s parents,brothers and sisters,uncles and other elders of the family will also sit in the central room around the bride while the bride will show off and explain the makeup and accessories she has received to the crowd.For example,she will say:“This thing was sent by my brother or that thing is given by my sister”and so forth.When the bride thinks that she is ready to take her leave from her parents,brothers,sisters and other family members,she will cry and this is so called“wedding weeping”.She is only permitted to“cry from joy”,she may not“cry from sadness”.Most of the phrases uttered by the bride during the“weeding weeping”are things like“My parents worked hard to raise me but now I will soon leave them and I don’t have time to properly express my thanks to them”,and so forth.The bride will ask her brothers,sisters and uncles to take care of her parents and give her parents a happy old age.Parents and uncles also enjoin the bride:“A man should get married on coming of age,and the same is true for a woman.Today we send you a small gift,the gift is not expensive but the love it represents is priceless.Do not forget the gratitude of our kindness in raising you and the customs of your hometown.After you arrive at the bridegroom’s home,you should unite his family and take care of his parents.Do not alienate his brothers and sisters or do anything to his younger siblings that would cause us to lose face and be disgraced,”etc.After enjoining her,her makeup and accessories will be packed into a cabinet,the bride will dress up beautifully,take up a bouquet of red flowers and cover her face with a red cloth.Next,the bride needs to go bow to the ancestor altar,being guided by her bridesmaid,then she will bow to parents,uncles,brothers and sisters.Then,she will be carried by her elder brother or elder male cousin out of the door.Her feet must not touch the threshold,which symbolizes that she ought not to take any dust(that is,bad things)from her maiden family into her husband’s family.After that,the bride will set out for the bridegroom’s house by horse or on foot.

When the bride arrives at the front door of the bridegroom’s house,the relatives of the bridegroom will hold a teapot with four glasses of red liquor.They will toast the bride and her bridesmaids first,then toast the other people who have been following.At this time,the bride’s younger brother who has been leading the horse will help the bride dismount and will show the dowry to the bridegroom’s family,one at a time.The bridegroom will give each of those leading the horses,carrying the boxes and quilts a red envelope of money.The bridegroom holds a teapot with cigarettes and some cups of tea for those following,greeting them one at a time,to show his thanks for their effort.The Mo Gong or Boh Mo,that is the Zhuang shaman,will walk around the horse and the bride,drawing magic figures,murmuring,and sprinkling magic water in order to rid the area of the evil of the ghosts(demons)that have travelled with the bride’s party.

When the time comes for the marriage bowing,the elders are first invited to sit down,and then the bridesmaids will guide the bride and bridegroom to do their bows.The first bow is to the cosmos,that is,heaven and earth,the second bow is to the ancestors,the third bow is to their parents,the fourth bow is to the family elders,the fifth bow is to other elders and guests while the last bow for the bride and bridegroom is to each other.Next,the red veil over the bride’s face will be removed by the bridegroom while the bride and bridegroom are guided to the bridal chamber.Once inside,they light the double-wicked lamp at the bedside.Next,the bridesmaid escorting the bride will fetch a cup of liquor for the bride and bridegroom,and each will take a sip.Then the bride and bridegroom will take the double-wicked lamp and make it into a single-wicked lamp to indicate that they will share the same intention and deeply love each other in the future.The bridesmaid charges them:“You two are now married,are kin,and you should work with one heart and mind to establish your household.Care for the elders and raise children together in order to find happiness with them and then each of the children you raise will be outstanding.”After the bride and bridegroom consummate their marriage in the bridal chamber,everybody will start the wedding feast.During the feast,the bride will hold a teapot with eight cups of liquor and be accompanied by her bridesmaids to toast the elders one by one.This is called the“gift of greeting”,and this is the time when they present the male and female gift shoes they have prepared to the men and women,respectively.The people who accept the gift shoes pay gift money as“thanksgiving gifts”except for the parents of the bridegroom.The Bu Dai and Bu Yue Zhuang people(that is the“Tu”and“Sha”branches)also organize another feast for entertaining the bridesmaids who escorted her to the groom’s house and those who guided her during the wedding rites.This feast is hosted by a middle-aged woman who can sing and dance.They will eat together and sing the“marriage welcome song”and the“farewell song”to express thanks to each other.

Teasing on wedding night.It is customary for the bridegroom’s friends to tease and horse around about the bridal chamber during the wedding night.They will make the bride and bridegroom sit on a single chair together,or eat a single candy together,or make them sing together,or make them guess riddles together in order to entertain the guests.Sometimes the teasing can last the whole night.The next morning,the bride will prepare some basins of water for the bridegroom’s parents,brothers and uncles to wash their faces with,having already prepared water to wash their feet at night.When they have dinner,the bride will first bring some food to the elders using her chopsticks to demonstrate her filial piety to the groom’s family.

Returning home on the third day.On the third day after the wedding night,the bride and bridegroom will return to the bride’s house,taking along some gifts,in the company of three to five friends or brothers and sisters-in-law.This is called“returning home on the third day”.The bride’s family will host a feast to welcome them,and invite relatives to accompany them.During the feast,the bride’s parents will introduce and teach the bridegroom how to address their relatives one by one.The bridegroom must listen and toast each one.This is called“giving the relatives recognition”.The elders will present some gift money to the bridegroom face-toface.After the feast,the bride will stay in her parents’ house while the others will go back to their home that same day.Three to five days later,the brothers and sisters of the bridegroom will pick up the bride and escort her back to the bridegroom’s house.After that both the bride and the bridegroom can visit the house of the other’s family freely.It is the Nong Zhuang people’s custom that the bride will not live in the bridegroom’s house during the first three or more years after her marriage.The reason is that the woman officially gets married as soon as an auspicious day arrives,but the more time she has to care for her own parents,the better.If the girl becomes responsible for her bridegroom’s house too early,she will likely be disgraced and laughed at.Thus,though the Nong Zhuang often married quite early they do not become pregnant and give birth that early.They valued their self-respect and only during the busy farming seasons of the year would the couple come together to each other to do the farm work.This custom has changed nowadays.

Matrilocal marriage,in which the man marries into the wife’s family and their children take her family’s name.There are mainly three reasons why Zhuang men would marry matrilocally,that is,into the wife’s family and family line,rather than the opposite direction,which is the norm.First,if the man has serious economic problems that he does not have the financial capability to marry a girl,he may choose to marry into her family.Second,if the bride lacks brothers so that they need a male heir to take care of the elders and continue the family line.Thirdly,if the bridegroom’s side has multiple brothers that makes it less of a big deal for the groom to marry into the bride’s family(as his family has others to care for his parents and carry on the family line).The matrilocal marriage process is simple.The bride’s family sends people to organize a feast in the bridegroom’s house by taking wine,rice and meat,twenty to forty pounds(10 or 20 kg of each).Then the bridegroom will be guided back to the bride’s house.Large character couplets are written on red paper saying that“to recruit a son-in-law is to cause the family property to bloom; to help the daughter is to prosper the family’s descendants”.Some matrilocal weddings also have some contracts that if the bridegroom has inherited the bride’s inheritance,the bridegroom must change his family name to that of the bride’s and be responsible for taking care of the bride’s family elders.After three generations,the bridegroom’s descendants can recover his family name.This is called“after three generations return to the original ancestor”.

Broken marriages among the Zhuang are not common,and remarriage after divorce is even rarer.If the bride is widowed while still young and her parents-in-law are still alive,she may not remarry or find another bridegroom to marry in,matrilocally.If she insists on remarrying,her parents-in-law will request some money from the second husband to cover“previous marriage expenses”,without receipt of which they will not allow the bride to leave her former bridegroom’s house.After the foundation of the People’s Republic in 1949,with the implementation of“The Marriage Law”customs barring widows from remarrying were officially abolished.There were relatively few cases of child brides in this Zhuang region,and since 1949 the custom of child bride no longer exists.

3.Birth and Celebrations

Birth.Zhuang People have traditionally had three methods of childbirth,natural childbirth,delivery aided by medical science,and delivery by traditional midwives.During pregnancy,Zhuang women are advised to do some mild exercises only to reinforce their strength and reduce difficulties in labor.The husbands and parents of new mothers prepare sticky rice,liquor,chicken,eggs and other meats for the month following childbirth.Neighbors come to visit and often offer help.If the labor lasts for one or two days without successful childbirth,the family begins to worry and fear a tragedy.In this regard,some resort to medicine while others ask witches to drive away evil spirits or burn incense and cast spells.Once the baby is born safe and sound,the whole family,overjoyed,will boil water with pomelo to bathe the baby,nourish the new mother with chicken and eggs,and hang pomelo leaves over the door for luck.Within three days of the delivery,the new mothers should avoid going outside or approaching the hearth.As for the husbands,they are banned from going out of the village or coming near shrines,temples,sacred forests,earth god and rice god shrines,blacksmith shops(believed to be shelters of demons)in order to avoid attracting evil.Three days after the childbirth,the“Third Dawn”ritual is practiced on the newborn’s behalf by sacrificing a chicken to ancestors,after which the new mother is allowed to go outside,carrying her child,but only for two or three minutes.After that,the family entertains its relatives to celebrate the“Third Dawn”.During the month after childbirth,friends and relatives far and near send the new mother chicken,eggs and sticky rice.After 1949,in more accessible villages,pregnant women started to go to hospitals to give birth for the sake of safety.

First month feast for a new-born.The first child of a family is given a name upon the completion of its first month,celebrated by the First Month Feast.The rich entertain their friends and relatives while the average families sacrifice chicken and pork to worship their ancestors and invite the baby’s maternal grandparents and paternal family brothers to dinner to celebrate and make wishes for the healthy growth of the baby.The new mother’s godmother,who was formally chosen and recognized the day before her wedding day,now comes and brings gifts like cloth,rice,chicken or eggs to the naming celebration.In the celebration,the elders,the maternal grandfather,the new mother’s brothers,and someone who knows well about horoscope all sit in a circle with their host.First,the host offers incense to the ancestors and prays for the baby.Then the elders discuss and choose a name for the baby,which cannot be identical to that of a dead or living relative of either the paternal family or the maternal family.When the name is settled,the exact year,month,date and hour of the baby’s birth is written down in the horoscope book.When the baby is one month old,the maternal grandmother sews a cloth baby carrier and the new parents send wine,meat and rice,ten pounds(5 kg)each to the maternal grandmother.The one month celebration for the second child of a couple is much simpler.Among the Bu Yue(Sha)Zhuang of Funing County,a“Grab Game”on the occasion of a baby’s first birthday is arranged.A table is set up at the middle of the main room,on which a lit lamp is placed,surrounded by the abacus,pen and ink,a book,a balance scale,some chopped green onion,kindling,etc.With everything laid out,the baby is free to crawl and grab whatever is on the table in order to foretell what the baby’s interests will be.If the baby grabs the abacus,he is believed to be good at math; the balance scale,business; the book,academic study; the pen,writing,etc.If the baby grabs the chopped green onion and kindling,the baby will be a clever child.

Birthday celebrations for the elders.Zhuang people have always attached great importance to birthday celebrations of their elders.They deem that parents have spent their life raising offspring and their love and care must be repaid.They expect their parents to live long,so celebrating their birthdays are regarded as the duty of the children and happy events.Four major celebrations are observed,known by the Chinese characters called“Fu”(blessing),“Shou”(long life),“Kang”(Health),and“Ning”(Peace).

“Fu”is celebrated at the age of forty-nine.The rites are simple and brief and consist of inviting the shaman to recite or chant scriptures about longevity.Three strips of bamboo are spread at the fork of a road，representing the building and mending of roads and bridges for pedestrians，which is deemed as being good deeds that will extend the lifespan of the elder.The Chinese character Fu（福； meaning“blessing”）is written on a piece of festival red paper，which is pasted on the side of the ancestor altar.Incense and tea are offered to the ancestors at festivals to pray for longevity.Friends and relatives send chicken，meat，rice and liquor，feasting and chatting together.

“Shou”is celebrated at the age of sixty-one.Being the most ceremonious birthday，a special banquet of pork，chicken，liquor，rice is prepared.One or two silver or copper bracelets are produced，on which“eight characters to protect life and luck and eight divination symbols to protect the body”are engraved.Daughters and daughters-in-law sew and present longevity shoes with the Chinese character Shou（寿）embroidered on the uppers.The sons-in-law each present a roasted pig，a table full of banquet food，a red silk scroll with birthday inscriptions，a bag of rice，and also some bracelets，clothing and hats.Relatives and fellow villagers send chicken，meat，rice and liquor to celebrate the day.The shaman is invited to lead the recitation or chant scriptures about longevity，for one，two or three days.During the recitation，the children and grandchildren of the elder stand behind the shaman holding incense as they bow to the ancestor altar every time a section of recitation is completed.This is called the“incense rite”.For the rituals of building the bridge of longevity and carrying the rice of longevity，a sheet of black cloth is stretched from the altar to the elder’s bedroom door，with his or her descendants kneeling on both sides.Starting at the very end of the cloth，rice，liquor and money are relayed from the upper part of the cloth to the bamboo basket at the lower part，as a toast is offered to the elder’s health.Eventually，the elder，dressed in special longevity garments and shoes，is out led by the shaman，to the sound of gongs，drums and horns，to bow to the Cosmos，that is Heaven and Earth，the ancestors and the earth god.The elder’s children，following the shaman’s lead，engrave scriptures upon a slab of stone and bury it at the fork of a road，in hope that this good deed will give their elder long life.A longevity altar is set up on the divinity altar，on which incense is offered on festivals.In the center of the altar is pasted a piece of red paper or red cloth，on which the Chinese character Shou is written.On horizontal tablets，Chinese characters are written，with the Chinese messages： Shou Xing Gao Zhao（寿星高照； The Longevity Star shines from on high），Nanji Xing Hui（南极星辉； The South Pole Star is shining），Chun Ying Bing Mao（椿营并茂； The Camellia is flourishing）.The couplets include the following slogans：“Happiness as immense as the Eastern Sea；“Live as long as the Southern Mountain.”“May your years last as long as a pine tree and may your years be as long as a crane.”Friends come to celebrate with written couplets and some even with a suona horn band or a local theoretical troupe.Different plays may be staged according to the gender of the elder，such as Long Life to Guo Ziyi（a well-known militarist in Tang Dynasty who lived beyond eighty），A Birthday Celebration for the Eight Immortals，The Birthday Celebration of the Jade Emperor，The Birthday Celebration of the Queen Mother，The Birthday Celebration of Fairy of Lishan.These plays generate great excitement.During the feast，the elder is seated in the place of honor and his or her children and grandchildren propose toasts to the elder one after another.Friends skilled in singing birthday songs propose toasts to the elder，singing beautifully.

The“Kang”birthday is celebrated at the age of seventy-three.The Chinese character Kang（康； meaning“health”）is written on a piece of red paper and pasted to the longevity altar.Two more dishes are served for the feast of“Kang”than for that of“Shou”.

The“Ning”birthday is celebrated at the age of eighty-five.The Chinese character Ning（宁； meaning“peace”）is written on a piece of red cloth and pasted to the longevity altar.The feast includes two more dishes served than that of“Kang”.The rest part of the celebration is identical with that of“Shou.”

4.Death and Funerals

The gun salute to announce a death.As an elder person lies dying,sons,daughters and daughters-in-law stand around the bed and weep.The minute the patient dies,a shotgun is immediately fired to announce the sorrowful news.The biological children put a coin and some rice into the mouth of the dead.After a while,the children take them out and store them in different clay jars.These serve as a symbol of a treasure left behind for the offspring.Then the body is cleaned and disinfected with water boiled with pomelo leaves.The hair is combed and the body is redressed in new clothes.The meaning of this is that while living they had a place of their own and when dead they leave that place clean.The dead is prepared to await their relatives who will come and mourn.The body is placed on the floor of the central room,on top of a mat and then covered by a piece of white cloth,with no part of the body exposed.A cooked chicken and a bowl of cooked,sticky rice are placed as offerings in front of the body with incense and burnt paper money.The surviving children kneel and take turns watching over the body,making sure no dogs or cats pass over the body.Sons and daughters cry bitterly before the meal,saying,“You went out and worked from early morning till late night to raise us,but we have not yet repaid your love and care.Now you have passed away and left us behind.What can we do in the future?”The mournful weeping makes the scene quite touching.The body cannot be placed in the coffin before all the close relatives are present,especially the deceased brothers,if it is a woman who has died.

Placing the body into the coffin and keeping wake beside the coffin.The children and grandchildren of the family place the body into the coffin themselves.Pine resin,or,for lack of pine resin,paste made of boiled sticky rice,is spread in the coffin first,and,in some cases,charcoal or ashes are added.The rough straw paper and white cloth are pasted into the coffin before the body is placed in it.Clothes and shoes worn by the deceased are also placed inside the coffin.The body is covered with a sheet of white cloth,and the coffin is closed with a cover.The closed coffin is placed in the central room of the house but is not allowed to come into contact with the ground.Short benches support the coffin.Incense and lamps are lit and kept aflame at both ends of the coffin.A bowl of cooked rice and a cooked chicken are set out as offerings before the coffin.The sons stay on the left side of the coffin,while the daughters are on the right.It is imperative for them to walk quietly and whisper softly.They are not allowed to wear shoes,to sit on benches,to smoke a water pipe or to touch water.Those who violate these taboos are believed to cause the bodily fluids to leak out of the coffin.A straw hat or a sheet of white paper is used to cover the ancestor altar while everyone waits for the shaman to arrive.

Taoist practices for the salvation of spirit of the dead.The children deem this a weighty responsibility as well as the last thing they can do for their parents.Nevertheless,this tradition varies with different family financial situations.Impoverished families must bury the dead first and later carry out the salvation rituals.Well-to-do families practice the salvation ritual immediately after death,in areas where Taoism is practiced.It is said that in this tradition,the Daoist priest is invited to open the way to heaven for the dead so that the dead would be released.An altar is set up and scriptures are chanted for three to five days.When the Taoist priest arrives with his cohort of usually four to five people,the children of the dead person kneel at the front door and propose three toasts before the group of shamans enter the house.After the Taoist clergy sets up the altar and offers sacrifice to the Tao Sage,mourning cloths are handed out.The eldest son and daughter wear a piece of long white cloth from head to waist; young children wear white hats and the rest wear white turbans to show the sincerity of their lamentations for the dead.Scrolls,bouquets,and vegetarian dishes sent by friends and relatives are received by the sons and daughters on their knees to express gratitude and all recorded in a book to remind the family so they can return the kindness in the future.The priest usually chants from the Tao Te Ching(The Book of the Way of Virtue,one of the two fundamental texts of Taoism)to release the dead from purgatory,as well as practicing eighteen different Taoist rituals,of which two are the most heart-rending.

One involves the priest leading the children and grandchildren to chant the Mu Lian scripture while circling the coffin.The firstborn son wears a ragged rain hat,with a scythe on his belt,carrying on his shoulders some rice and broken furniture,while holding a walking stick.This mimics the labors of their parents as they made a living and raised children.The son alternately kneels and walks,following the priest,for about two hours.The weeping and sorrowful chanting causes the other children,grandchildren and guests to weep also.The heart-rending ceremony is that of the offerings of animal sacrifices and liquor.The children and grandchildren kneel behind the priests,offering liquor to the dead three times and chanting funeral orations.Some chant in the Zhuang language in a soft voice,in immense sadness and tears,lead the people present to tears and sobbing.

Ending the period of mourning by burning the memorial tablet.The period of mourning for a mother is at least 120 days while that for a father is sixty days.Sons and daughters must never forget the pains their mothers suffered for them in pregnancy and childbirth and should repay their mothers’ love and care.Within the period of mourning,wedding ceremonies,singing and dancing are not allowed,nor are haircuts or playing drinking games,such as the popular game in which one guesses numbers based on fingers held up.Leisure visits to the houses of other families are not allowed,either.When the period of mourning is concluded,an auspicious day is selected and the Taoist priest is sent for to chant Taoist scriptures and to end the period of mourning by burning a memorial tablet.At that point,the person is received by the ancestors.

Those who die outside cannot be brought inside the house of the family.The salvation rituals for that soul are conducted by setting up an altar outside.If the dead had children,the children must pass over a cauldron of oil and a fire pit,to receive the dead person’s soul before the salvation ritual can be conducted at home.People who die young and unmarried are sent to the place of the air currents(Feng Liu Chu)and cannot be listed among the ancestors.People who die very young cannot have their souls saved.Women who die in labor,and those who drown must be buried with a living female duck,which is symbolic of a boat for their soul.Also,a Japanese banana(Ba jiao)tree is planted next to such a person’s grave to be felled after it bears fruit.That is the only way in which the soul of a person who died in this way can be freed.If the dead person is a witch,a high level Taoist priest must be called to save her spirit since an average Taoist priest without sufficiently“hard”spells will fear infection from her death and will not dare to practice the salvation rituals for a dead witch.

Long Dong Festival.The Long Dong Festival,also called“Long Duan”,is a traditional festival unique to the Zhuang people living in Funing County.From the middle of the first month to the beginning of the fourth month of lunar calendar each year,the Zhuang people of Funing County select a date to celebrate this festival,normally during the third lunar month.This third month festival has gone on for hundreds of years.In the Zhuang language,roengz(or loangz)means going down while doengh suggests a flat field or a piece of level land.So the name of this festival means“going down into a flat field”.This festival is celebrated on different days in different areas.On the chosen day of a given village,the villagers,dressed in new clothes,go to designated flat field or a level site on a mountain side in groups for the festival.They inform other ethnic groups of their festival and welcome them to join in.This festival is celebrated by as many as thousands of people or as few as hundreds.This festival can be very boisterous and serve as a kind of bazaar.

It is believed that the Long Dong Festival originates from the Northern Song Dynasty period(960–1127 CE),when the Song Dynasty Han Chinese forces remained in the Funing area after they suppressed the uprising of Nong Zhigao.The Northern Song royal court,in order to strengthen its control over the regions inhabited by Zhuang People,transferred the mountain people down into the river valleys.The government of the Northern Song Dynasty adopted an administrative system in which a large area was governed as a prefecture(zhou in Chinese),within which were a number of counties(xian in Chinese),within which were smaller administrative units,called dongs in Chinese.Some of the Zhuang started thus to call river valleys doengh and the residents of these river valleys as Doengh people.To fight against the oppression of the Northern Song Dynasty and support the uprising of Nong Zhigao against the Northern Song Dynasty,the Zhuang people of this area rose up in the year of 1035 CE,headed by a Zhuang woman named Yawang of Maogen Village in modern day Bo’ai Township,and under her leadership resisted the feudal government.On a hot day,after a battle,Yawang thought there was no one around and went to the river to bathe.Unexpectedly,several remnant Song soldiers hiding in the grass found Yawang alone and killed her with an arrow.The royal court of the Northern Song Dynasty,for fear that Zhuang People would continue their uprising,drove her family members out of the area.They were forced to leave their homeland.Their fellow villagers killed pigs and slaughtered sheep to give a farewell dinner for them.They shared dinner and liquor before the family’s departure.They proposed toasts to each other and were loath to part from one another.The family was deported at different times,some members as early as in the middle of the first lunar month,some as late as in the beginning of the fourth lunar month while most were forced to leave during the third lunar month.Those refugees longed for their homeland and snuck back to visit.Their fellow villagers received them warmly and welcomed them back to rebuild their homes.Upon their return,fellow villagers first entertained them at home,but later,because of the large crowd,the reception was moved out into the yard.Yet even the yard was not large enough to accommodate all the people,therefore,a flat field or a grass lawn was chosen to hold the receptions for the returned refugees.From that time on,the Long Dong Festival has been celebrated once a year.At first,it was celebrated in each village,but later it was celebrated in each Dong grouping of villages,in which every village was the chief village for that Dong.The festival has grown in both scale and scope and has developed for nearly a millennium.

The date of Long Dong Festival of different areas varies by host village.A couple of days before the celebration,the host village puts up the advertisement or sends out invitations to welcome people from different regions.The events usually last for three to five days.Originally,the festival was celebrated to entertain the returning compatriots,with antiphonal singing to escape from anguish,weariness and fatigue of having been deported refugees.Later the festival was developed by adding dancing and self-written and self-directed dramas to the singing.Vendors took advantage of the occasion to do some selling,and gradually the festival became a rural trade fair.For young unmarried men and women,the festival served as a wonderful opportunity for them to express their love and sing love songs to each other.Thus,folk song lyrics like these often come into your ears if you are in a Zhuang region:

“In the third month,here at the Long Dong festival,Brother gives moon cakes while Sister sends shoes.The young man buys the moon cakes with his own money while the young woman makes the shoes herself.In the third month,here at the Long Dong festival,young men and women sing love songs to each other.They earnestly seek out their lovers.Goods of all kinds are sold by vendors and you can pick whatever you want.Spring is the best time in the whole year,and it is because of you,my Beloved,that I am eager for Spring to come!”

At present,there are more than eighty villages that host Long Dong Festival.In each host village,one or two respected seniors are elected to take charge of the festivities,to keep track of donation from each household,to remind the villagers to brew the rice liquor,to mobilize the villagers to clean their houses and their surroundings and arrange accommodations,including preparing colorful glutinous rice,rice rolls and rice noodles,and to make preparations for inviting the theatrical troupe and setting up their stage.During the celebration,the performance of traditional dramas lasts as long as the festival itself.In the daytime,military plays are staged while in the evening,musicals are performed.These plays are usually reflections of people’s historic conflicts and wars,such as the uprisings of Nong Yawang,Nong Zhigao,and Nong Sanse,all performed in the local Zhuang style.

Long Dong Festival thrived in the early years after the beginning of the People’s Republic in 1949,but was banned from 1958 to 1978.After the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party,it has been restored and it is regaining popularity.

Long En Festival.Ganmei Village of Guichao Township in Funing is endowed with more than forty karst formation caves including caves called“the Cave of Conjugal Love”“Grain Cave”“Silver Cave”“Buffalo Cave”“Goat Cave”“The Cave of Immortals”and“Tiger Cave”.The legend is that after the village was built,during the first lunar month,a pair of jade white rabbits were seen running into a small cave and later also a pair of a boy and a girl were seen entering a larger cave hand in hand,but none were seen coming back out.A few villagers went in to search for them but with no luck.Thereinafter,this larger cave was determined by the villagers to be the love nest of the“golden boy and jade girl”,now known as the“Cave of Conjugal Love”.Here also lies the Shrine of the God of Agriculture,the oldest Zhuang shrine in Funing.Smaller tribute gifts to the agriculture god are offered every year,while the large tribute is given every twelve years.The twelve-year cycle is synchronized with the Han Chinese twelve-year cycle.The twelve-year tribute is accompanied by three to five days of reciting Taoist scriptures.There is a“shrine field”called Naz Dau Ci in Zhuang,which is partitioned and thirty pounds(15 kg)of rice seed is spread over about twelve Chinese mu(two acres or 0.8 hectares).Whoever is appointed as the guardian of the Naz Dau Ci will sow and take care of the field.Before the fifteenth day of the first lunar month,the guardian organizes the cooking of sticky rice and the preparation of sticky rice cakes,of which 240 are sent to the elders of the prestigious villages.Also,360 rice cakes,one for each day of the Zhuang year,are prepared in the shape of small triangles.On the fifteenth day of the first month,the guardian distributes these in front of the cave where the young men and women have gathered,a symbol of the five cereals blessed by the agriculture god in expectation of a bumper harvest and a good year for the domestic animals.This ritual is called“Long En”in the Zhuang language.Roengz(or loangz)means“going down”while Coengh means“cave”.On the fifteenth day of the first month,the elders gather at the shrine while young men and women gather in the caves.Gradually,men or women,old or young,all gather on the flat ground before a cave and hold a variety of activities.The number of attendees of Long En can range from hundreds to thousands.A poem depicting this tradition was written on the cave wall by someone in Qing Dynasty whose name remains unknown.

There are festivals every month of the lunar calendar.There can be no meal without sticky rice and there can be no sacrifice without meat and wine.Always the worship of ancestors is emphasized.

Spring Festival,often known as Chinese or Asian New Year,falls on the first day of the first lunar month and is the biggest celebration.At the end of the twelfth month of the lunar year,all households are busy cleaning their houses.The men traditionally went out to earn money to do some shopping while the women are responsible for gathering firewood,feeding the pigs,and making clothing and shoes.On the evening of the twenty-third day of the twelfth month,the kitchen god is respectfully sent off to heaven.It is said that the kitchen god is the deity who delivers goodness of the earthly world to heaven and brings luck back to the earthly world.On that very evening,chicken,sticky rice balls(tangyuan in Chinese)and even a bowl of horse feed are offered to the kitchen god.Soon afterwards,pigs are slaughtered,the pork is salted,colored sticky rice wrapped in leaves are prepared.Incense burners for worshiping the ancestors are replaced.The large character vertical couplets are written on red paper and pasted around the door.Borrowed objects are returned(or collected)and everyone prepares for family reunions.

On the eve of the lunar new year,sacrifices and offerings are made to ancestors for about two hours.After that,firecrackers are ignited.Then offerings are made to maternal ancestors,the deities of the stables and the earth before dinner begins.For this dinner,there must be enough for leftovers and the table cannot be cleaned,dishes must not be washed,the floor must not be swept,and no clothes should be hung to dry in the sunshine.Each family selects one large piece of good firewood and put it into the cooking hearth in the direction of good fortune.As it burns through the night,sufficient food and clothing in the coming year are expected.The incense and lamps on the ancestor altar are kept lit through the night.In the niche for the gods,the chicken is removed,but the other sacrifices will remain until the fifteenth day of the month,or even as long as the end of the month.From 11 p.m.of New Year’s Eve to 3 a.m.of the first day of the new year,good or bad luck in the coming year is predicted.If one first hears a rooster crow,the year is believed to be lucky,whereas if a dog barks first,that is a warning that there will be thieves.If one hears a cat meows first,that indicates hungry days.If one hears the cry of children or the cawing of a crow,these predict local instability.Upon hearing the crowing of roosters,various households compete with each other in setting off firecrackers,to call back the souls of their livestock.Students start reading books and the kitchen god is greeted and welcomed into the house.At this point,people carry home water to prepare for the New Year,and offer incense and tea to the ancestors and pay them a New Year’s call on their knees,praying for a good beginning in business,luck,and auspiciousness,kneeling in front of the ancestor altar.Men and women,old and young,put on their new clothes.The younger generation pays New Year visits to the elder generation,expressing their good wishes for the elders’ health.The older people give the younger people money as New Year gifts.Those elders who can read kneel in front of the shrine with a lit incense stick in hand and pray for the progress of their children and grandchildren in their studies.

At daybreak,the head of the household opens the front door and chants,“We will open the door to luck,we will travel toward profit,we will pass the seasons in peace,we will have more years of life,we will have blessing forever,our elderly will live long,we will have many wealthy descendants,our livestock will grow plump,our house will be filled with treasure,we will rise and rise and rise!”Only then can the family members walk in and out of the house.The young play with shuttlecocks and toss embroidered balls,play tug-of-war,compete in the game of tops and sing to each other while playing with bamboo tubes.Some Zhuang abstain from eating meat on the morning of the first day of the New Year,eating glutinous rice soup instead,abstaining from meat in memory of deceased relatives.On the first day of the New Year,only joy is allowed.Causing trouble,travelling out of the village,and washing and drying clothes are forbidden.On the morning of the second day,people offer sacrifices at the earth god’s shrine and then eat dinner together before visiting relatives.Villages with a local theoretical troupe start their performances.Before 1949,these activities lasted until the fifteenth day until the sacrifices to the pavilion of the elders was served,and only after that did the people resume their field work.But after 1949,the celebration has shortened to only about three days.

On the thirtieth day of the first month,the“Small Year”festival is celebrated with as large a feast as that eaten at the Lunar New Year’s Day(Spring Festival)itself.For this feast,cakes made from grass flour and glutinous rice flour are also prepared.

On the second day of the second month,the sixth day of the sixth month and the second day of the eighth month,the people in each village repair and offer sacrifices at the shrine of the earth god and eat together at the shrine.Some write out and paste up large character couplets on red paper on the sides of the gates of the shrines.These couplets,written in Chinese,are prayers for blessing from the earth god.

On the third day of the third month,Zhuang people visit and sweep the tombs of their ancestors,offering liquor,meat,fish and glutinous rice dyed in several different colors.The purplish-black colored glutinous rice is dyed with wild Chinese sweet gum(Liquidambar formosana)leaves,the yellow is dyed using the flowers of the butterfly bush(Buddleja Officinalis),the red and violet are dyed with a type of grass that produces a red juice when pressed.Upon the completion of the sacrifice,the people dine in front of the tombs,considered as eating with the ancestors.After the meal,paper money folded into the shape of a cross is stuck into the earth on the top of the grave.Then the people are free to leave the graves.

On the eighth day of the fourth month,the Festival of the Bull Demon King is celebrated.The legend is about the mythical Jade Emperor who sent the Bull Demon King to plow the field for the peasants.On this day,meat and multi-colored glutinous rice are presented as offerings at the pens where the buffalo and cattle are kept.The hard-working buffalo and cattle are fed with colorful glutinous rice and given a day off from work.

On the fifth day of the fifth month of the lunar year,the“Double Fifth”festival is celebrated.Wild reed leaves are used to wrap large glutinous rice rolls.Some fill bamboo tubes with glutinous rice.Calamus(Acorus calamus,also called“sweet flag”)and Chinese mugwort(Artemisia argyi,also called“argy wormwood”)are hung over the front doors and altars,and are also boiled in water to prepare a bath,believed to prevent epidemics.Liquor tinctured with realgar(an arsenic sulfide mineral,also known as“ruby sulphur”or“sulphur of arsenic”)is smeared on the face and limbs to avoid snakes.At all the four corners of a room this realgar liquor is sprinkled to keep the house free of scorpions,snakes,centipedes,geckos and Asiatic toads(Bufo gargarizans).These are considered“the five poisonous creatures”to the Zhuang.Herbalists deem this day a favorable day to collect herbs.Farmers and animals are forbidden to work in the fields on this day.

On the sixth day of the sixth month,the Zhuang make sacrifices to the remote ancestors also called the“Field Father and Earth Mother”.The spirits of those ancestors who lived more than three generations back are said to be guarding the fields instead of staying in the house.Therefore,people make an offering of colored glutinous rice to the remote ancestors by setting the rice in a small hut that they erect at the edge or corners of the fields.

The fourteenth day of the seventh month is the festival for sacrificing to the ancestors.People pick Japanese banana(bajiao)leaves to make dalianba,or glutinous rice paste tamales.They make offerings of pork,chicken,duck,meat,liquor and these dalianbas to the ancestors.Paper of different colors is folded into clothes,boxes and quilts,which are burnt when the offerings have been made.The symbolic items are made for the ancestors,with some even having the secret taboo names of specific ancestors written on them.On the eighteenth day of the same month,the women form groups and take incense,candles and paper of various colors and go to the witch’s house to make offerings to the gods.The Buyang people of Gula District(a group of people who are classified as Zhuang but speak a language which is different from the Zhuang language)mark the day with ceremonies for Yawang,the woman who led the Zhuang insurrection against the Han Chinese army during the Northern Song Dynasty period(960–1127 CE)and who was murdered by the imperial soldiers.It is said that she had mastered a type of witchcraft,so in this area witches are regarded as the mortal representatives chosen by the spirit of Yawang.

The Mid-Autumn Festival falls on the fifteenth day of the eighth month.On the evening of that day,incense sticks are stuck into pomelos which,along with candles,are placed on a long stick fixed outside the door of the house.These represent the“shining moon in space”and attract people to come by and appreciate the beautiful smell and light.At the bottom of the bamboo poles that hold up this stick,an incense brazier,moon cakes,bananas and candies may be placed.The family sit in a circle and enjoy the treats.

On the ninth day of the ninth month of the lunar year the festival of the first fruits is celebrated.The Zhuang credit successful harvests to the protection and blessing of their ancestors,so they offer sacrifices to the ancestors on the day when the rice is mature.On that day,families select mature grains of sticky rice and cook them to host their ancestors.Or they may pound them into green flat rice grains,which are fragrant and sweet.

On the tenth day of the tenth month,cakes made from glutinous rice are usually prepared to offer the ancestors as part of other simpler rituals.

Winter solstice is also celebrated as a Zhuang festival.Pumpkin rice is made as an offering to the ancestors since people believe that pumpkins are sweetest on that particular day,and that day is the best time to collect pumpkin seeds.

6.Gift Giving Traditions

Wedding ceremony.When there is a wedding,friends and relatives are expected to attend the ceremony.The gifts of the attendees are money,rice and liquor.Relatives by marriage or close friends also give a mirror and a red envelope filled with money.Zhuang parents give their daughter a pillow and towel set,or a padded sheet set or a flannel sheet set,or a basin or six chi(2 m)of blue cloth as wedding gifts.An older sister and her husband give generous gifts to a younger sister who is to be married.

Funerals.Sons-in-law(including foster or symbolic sons-in-law)give valuable gifts at the funeral of a parent,usually a tableful of vegetarian dishes(eight different dishes on average),a dan each wine(45 lbs,20 kg)of rice and liquor,a pig(of over 110-130 lbs,50-60 kg),and a couple of chickens and ducks.Neighbors and representatives of each household who come to mourn give ten to twenty pounds(5-10 kg)of rice,forty pounds(20 kg)of soybeans or vegetables.Some bring firewood.The ritual for ending the official period of mourning by burning the memorial table is much simpler.

Birthday celebrations.Birthday congratulations are given to elders upon attaining the ages of forty-nine,sixty-one,seventy-three and eighty-five.The sons-in-law provide for banquets and longevity bracelets at these occasions while the daughters and daughters-in-law give them special“longevity shoes”to wear.Normally other relatives and friends will each give one chicken or a piece of pork(of 4-7 lbs.,2-3 kg),a five-pound(2 kg)sack of rice or a bottle of liquor.

Gifts given at wedding ceremonies,funerals and birthdays are recorded on paper by the host so as to be able to reciprocate later on.When Zhuang people visit friends or relatives or the sick in hospital they normally bring gifts.Common gifts for these ordinary visits include chicken,pork,rice,rice noodles,rice rolls,glutinous rice cakes,sesame oil rice cakes,multicolored glutinous rice and the similar foods.

7.The Symbols of Certain Customs

Multicolored glutinous rice is an essential food for each household when visiting graves on the third day of the third month,when offering sacrifices to the agriculture god and to the remote ancestors and for celebrating the Long Dong Festival.At most,ninety to one hundred pounds(40-50 kg)of colored rice is prepared; with ten to twenty pounds(5-10 kg)being the absolute minimum per household.Four stories or explanations for the different colors of the traditional Zhuang sticky rice have been passed down in certain areas.The first explanation is that the different colors are to commemorate the ancestors.The ancestors are credited with creating the world and thus must be repaid by their descendants.These ancestors include the remote ancestors,but also the great,great grandparents,the great-grandparents,the grandparents and the parents,so the various colors of the rice represent the different generations of forefathers.The ancestors are commemorated by means of the tombs outside and by means of the ancestor altars inside the home.Therefore,the multicolored glutinous rice is prepared to offer to them on tomb-sweeping day,which,for the Zhuang,is the third day of the third month.The second purpose of the multicolored rice is to memorialize Nong Zhigao,the Northern Song Dynasty(960–1127 CE)period Zhuang chieftain.During the uprising headed by him against the Chinese empire,fighters from different ethnic groups died and were thus thought of as martyrs.The different colors of the glutinous rice are said to remember them all: red represents the Zhuang,yellow represents the Han,blue the Yao,white the Miao and black the Yi.This explanation is sometimes offered in modern times for the multicolored rice.The third explanation is to express gratitude for the five historic Chinese grains,which are soybeans,wheat,rice,millet and sorghum.The legend goes that once upon a time people survived on tree roots and grasses before it was discovered that there were five edible grains.The discovery of these five grains greatly improved people’s life.Hence,the multicolored glutinous rice is made to represent and show appreciation for the five grains in anticipating a good harvest in the coming year.Red represents sorghum,but for the Zhuang,also sweet potato,peanuts,sago and sugarcane.Yellow represents rice and yellow corn(maize).White represents white broad beans(or pinto beans),white corn and cotton.Black represents black beans and black sesame.Green represents peas,green beans,melons and vegetables.The fourth explanation given is that all the colored rice is dyed with plants,therefore the dyes used have some medicinal properties.The black rice is dyed with wild Chinese sweet gum(Liquidambar formosana)leaves,which results in a slightly bitter taste,considered“warm”in terms of traditional Chinese medicine,with a fragrant smell.It is believed that this promotes the circulation of qi(“material energy”or“life force”),relieving internal heat,reducing flatulence and the feeling of dampness.The yellow rice is dyed with flowers of the butterfly bush(Buddleja Officinalis),which is“cool”in terms of Chinese medicine,smells sweet,and is believed to be effective in improving eyesight and improving circulation and reducing blood stasis(bruising).Sometimes yellow rice is dyed with ginger juice which is believed to be effective in treating rheumatism.The red grasses used to dye rice red are considered to be“cool”,smell fragrant and are considered to be effective in regulating qi and for stemming bleeding.Purple pennisetum and red-blue Spodiopogon cotulifer grasses are similar; the colors they produce when boiled are different but they are identical in medicinal function.The green rice is dyed with ginger leaves,which are considered“cool”,are fragrant and are effective in treating colds.The white rice is not dyed.

Symbols using trees.Marks upon doors: when a woman is in labor,pomelo leaves or twigs from orange trees are posted beside the front door.Those who are more than sixty years of age are not allowed to enter.If such a person accidentally enters,the intruder must take a sip of liquor and then red thread is tied to the elder’s hand to restore good luck.On the day of the Chinese Dragon Boat Festival(Duan Wu),leaves of Chinese calamus and maple leaves are hung over the front doors and on both sides of the ancestor altar as a type of prayer for good luck.

Knotting grass.Those who are trying to reclaim wasteland areas knot grass as a mark on trees with hornet’s nests whenever they find them.When others see the knotted grass,they do not dare to chop down these trees for fear of the hornets.

Taboo markers.Every year when the fields are sown,twigs are stuck in the field to let others know that it is taboo to enter the field or allow their animals to graze there.

Guide posts.When two persons are traveling the same road become separated by a long distance,the one in front will places a branch at fork in the road or a crossing to guide the other person following to the correct direction.

Indication of a courting man’s intention.When courting a young woman at her house for the first time,a young man often visits accompanied by several peers.Before entering the house,the young man will pick a twig to hold so that the young woman is subtly informed of which is the one who is interested in her and who hopes to become her boyfriend.

Hanging up red paper in fruit trees.On the thirtieth day of the twelfth month,each family adds soil to their fruit trees and hangs red paper on the branches.Children bring red paper,knives,hatchets,hoes and manure baskets to the feet of the fruit trees.Adults ask questions while children answer.The conversation may go something like this:

Questions and answers completed,the families add soil,prune and fertilize the fruit trees and hang red paper on the branches.

Taboos relating to daily work.The cutting of firewood and fieldwork are forbidden from the first day to the tenth day of the first month.On the Chinese Dragon Boat Festival,men and animals are banned from working in the field.

Taboos of daily life.On the thirtieth day of the twelfth month and the fourteenth day of the seventh month,eating with outsiders is prohibited.Leftovers must be used to feed pigs or dogs rather than being discarded.Anyone who breaks this rule will not reach mountains of gold and silver after they die.If a family is short of food or clothing,requesting food from one’s neighbors is forbidden.Otherwise,these beggars will be transformed into starving ghosts after they die.From the first day to the fifth day of the first month,the fire on the cooking hearth must be kept continuously aflame.Whistling inside the house is a taboo,otherwise the family’s wealth will be lost.When sweeping the floor,the direction of the sweeping must always be from the front door toward the interior of the main room,symbolizing financial profit pouring in to the family from outside.Cursing and fighting during this period will result in bad luck to oneself.Getting up late from bed during this period is believed to result in the buffalo rolling around in the rice seedling beds(and thus ruining the rice seedlings).During these two weeks,engaging in trade,washing clothing and hunting are forbidden,or else one will bring injury upon oneself.From the first day to the fifteenth day of the first month,people must go out without wearing a bamboo hat.Torches are forbidden at night,otherwise,one will suffer from house,farm or forest fires in the coming year.Empty bamboo baskets or barrels must not be carried into the house during this time as this would be an omen of business losses.During this time,women may not sit at the places of honor at the feasts,so as to show their respect for the elders.

Food taboos.Plums put into water that do not sink must not be eaten.Melons that don’t float in water must be avoided.Any hearts and lungs of pigs and sheep that show holes cannot be eaten; if one sees sulphur in the goat’s blood,it must not be eaten.

Lodging taboos.The front door and the back door cannot be built facing opposite directions,as the doors would be in conflict with each other and thus cause bad luck.A husband and wife(including their daughter and son-in-law)who come asking for lodging must not be allowed to share the same room.An unmarried daughter must never share a room with her boyfriend or fiancé at her parents’ house.A married daughter cannot return to her parents’ house to pass her month of confinement after childbirth.If necessary,a separate shed must be set up for the daughter to give birth.When building a house,the front part of the house cannot be constructed higher than the back part so as not to block the sources of fortune from entering the house.

Bedroom taboos.Fathers-in-law must not enter the room of their daughters-in-law.Brothers-in-law must not enter the room of their sisters-in-law.The bedstead itself can only be moved on certain auspicious days.

Travel taboos.When travelling，when accidentally encountering a woman relieving herself by the path，in order to avoid bad luck，the man must immediately return home.When traveling，if one hears a crow cawing it is considered to be a harbinger of bad luck.When a bird drops its droppings upon one’s body，that is an omen of bad luck.After one’s fiftieth birthday，one must pay attention to those dates considered to be in conflict with one’s own“eight character”birthdate，and on those dates the person must not go out and travel，otherwise，that person will bring harm on him-or herself.When transporting a child to a far destination，the Chinese character for the number ten（十，the shape of a cross）must be drawn on the forehead of the child with cold charcoal and a pepper should be tied to his or her hat with straws tied to the waist or feet so that the child will avoid evil forces.Those who return home after visiting a family who is mourning a recent death must first walk over a basin of water and a piece of flaming firewood before entering their own house in order to avoid any ghosts that may have accompanied them home.Men or women who commit adultery must walk back into their house in the same way.

Taboos for Pregnancy.Pregnant women are not allowed to visit women who have recently given birth for fear that the new mothers’ milk will dry up.Pregnant women are not allowed to pick fruit,for fear that the fruit will become rotten.Pregnant women are not allowed to enter the new house of another family or step over farm tools or ropes used to fasten buffalos or horses,as all of these actions are considered to be unlucky.

Daily taboos.Sitting or standing on or in the threshold of the house is not allowed so as not to block the way of wealth and good fortune.Relieving oneself near temples,shrines,and the altars for the earth god and the grain god is forbidden as,otherwise,deafness and muteness will result.Dry twigs and branches of peach trees in the sacred forest areas must not be used for firewood,or else diseases would be incurred.On ancestor altars in the main room of the house no raw meat,hot peppers or anything dirty should be placed,as otherwise,the ancestors would blame the living and hold it against them.When borrowing someone else’s quilt,a shoe or a balance scale must first be placed upon the quilt before bringing the quilt into one’s house so that evil does not enter with the quilt.Money or possessions borrowed from others must be returned or paid back before New Year’s Eve,since owing a debt beyond the Spring Festival is thought to be disgraceful.But,on the other hand,one may not urge others to return or repay money or belongings lent to others as this will arouse enmity.

Taboos at the cooking hearth.No crying next to the cooking hearth.No scolding roosters,hens,dogs or daughters is allowed there either and one must not fight with sisters-in-law or brothers-in-law at this location.One must not place one’s feet upon the three-legged stand for the pots on the hearth,even to warm oneself.One must not bathe naked or comb one’s hair in front of the hearth.One must not dry shoes or diapers on the hanging racks above the hearth.One must never sprinkle water on the fire on the hearth or one will bring down the rebuke of the kitchen god upon one’s head.

1.Primitive religion

Worship of nature(Animism).In their primitive society,the Zhuang people did not understand natural phenomena such as the sky,moon,stars,wind,rain,thunder,water,stones,trees and natural disasters,so they felt scared and thought that there existed spirits who make these things and therefore they treated stones,trees,rivers and animals as sacred and worshiped them.At present,the Zhuang often preserve a large banyan tree in the middle or on the edge of their village where they offer sacrifices,as well as sacrificing to the mountain god,the earth god,the“She”god(a deity borrowed from the Han Chinese represented by an idol appearing like white-bearded old man),the dragon god,the water god and the kitchen(hearth)god.Every spring collectively the people gather for the“Spring Prayers”to beg the earth god,the mountain god,the She god,etc.for their protection.In the autumn,they gather for the“Autumn Prayers”to thank these deities for their protection and provision of the harvest.

Ancestor worship.Zhuang people respect their ancestors greatly and always maintain their ancestor altars in the main room of their house(in traditional houses,always opposite the front door).Above these the family name back four generations is written in large Chinese characters on red paper:“The fragrant place above the clan hall of generation upon generation of the so-and-so family”on both sides.Matching Chinese character couplets are also hung on both sides of the ancestor table.At this location,each household makes sacrifices to the ancestors of pork,chicken,duck,geese,liquor and candies at festivals and asks them for protection and wealth.Married daughters set up a table outside the door of their husbands’ houses to worship the tablet of her dead parents.In some villages,there is an“old people hall”,where there are tablets in honor of dead officials,with Chinese character couplets reading that such village ancestors are“protecting our families from disasters and providing for their well-being”.Every year at the planting time,harvest time,village sweeping time,and when making sacrifices to the dragon spirit,each household will supply one elderly person to represent them to present tribute fits and to make sacrifices.

Every family worships their ancestors out in their fields on the sixth day of the sixth month.These are the ancestors three generations back whose spirits have now already left the house to guard the fields.

Zhuang people believe in witchcraft and divination.Upon perceiving omens or falling ill,witches,Taoist priests,or shamans are called for to explain the omen or the cause of the illness.To learn how to enter hell and divine the future or spiritual explanations,Zhuang use witchcraft,trips to hell,books of witchcraft,spells,astrology,casting sacred lots,to determine which spirits are haunting the person and then the family tries to send away spirits by giving sacrifices of chicken,pork,goat and liquor.The Taoist priest or shaman expels evil using buffalo or ox feet,turtle shells,chicken bones,eggs,straw,chips of wood,weights,lots,eight character combinations and book of sorcery.The witch enters hell and then sets up an altar in the middle of the family’s house,and then to expel the spirit from the person’s body,she sings folksongs in different languages,that is,she sings in the other languages and folksongs of the dead people who might be harassing the living,she tries to guess the family problems of the spirit,and represents the person in chasing away disaster with reproaches.

During the Song Dynasty period(960–1279 CE)Han people flooded the Zhuang region and brought Taoism with them.The belief system of most Zhuang in Funing County is basically Taoism.The practitioners include farmers and teachers who organize religious rites and become amateur Taoist masters and priests.Before 1949,there were Taoist masters and priests in every village with at least forty families.Those people who have underwent Gai Guan(“Coronation”)and Guo Fa(“Passing the Method”)can be called“Taoist Masters.”(Generally,one proceeds from being a“Taoist Disciple”to a“Taoist Priest”to becoming a“Tao Master”).Masters who undergo the Guo Fa,Gai Guan rituals three times may wear the Taoist dragon gown,the cap with silver dragon and phoenix,take a special Taoist name(such as Wang Daoyi,Lu Daode,Zhou Daotong,Zhong Daoning and Nong Daoxuan,etc),and become a Taoist tutor,carry out salvation rituals(to free the souls of the dead from purgatory).Otherwise they remain Taoist priests or disciples(novices).Because Zhuang people have lived in contact with Han Chinese people,their religious beliefs have been influenced by those of Han people.In this region,they have syncretized Taoism,Buddhism and Confucianism.As far as temples,saving the souls of the dead from purgatory,and atoning for the souls of the dead are concerned,the scriptures,symbols,and curses of the three systems are often used together.

Normally the Taoist Master(who may also be a Mo Gong,or Zhuang shaman),when driving away spirits,reciting scriptures,drawing symbols or chanting spells will use the local Zhuang language.

When making the rites to save the soul of the dead,a Taoist master with three to five disciples will organize the rites: the invitation of the Taoist master,the invitation to the water,breaking into hell(or purgatory),fragrant foods,etc.They read Taoist scriptures and sing Taoism songs in the Chinese language,but on the first night when they carry the coffin to the burial site,they also use the local Zhuang dialect to try to save the soul of the dead.Masters and priests live like common people in Zhuang Taoism,but they never eat dog,cow,turtle,snake,eel,placenta and certain other taboo meats.They eat only vegetarian meals when reading Taoist scriptures in the temple or when saving the souls of the dead.They are invited to come for protection,to expel evils,to clean villages,to call back the spirits of the dead,to ask for long life,to conceive a son,to cause rain,etc.They do not negotiate with people for their pay.Those who invite them will compensate them and the family who requests their services must compensate them with chicken,pork,rice and liquor,which is seen as tribute to the ancestral master.

1.Writing System.From very early times,the Funing Zhang already had their own writing system,which has been called Tu Shu Zi in Chinese(which means“local custom characters”),and Sw Ndip in Zhuang(which means“raw characters”).These are“squareshaped”characters modeled after Chinese characters,which combine radicals from the Chinese characters in combinations that may differ from Chinese characters to fit the pronunciation and/or meaning of the Zhuang words,or which use normal Chinese characters to represent Zhuang words.This writing system has been used in various types of manuscripts such as songbooks,Taoist texts and contracts.

2.Zhuang Dramas.Zhuang drama is called Cen Duo in Zhuang.There are four times called Ai Yia,Ai Denu,Guai Hailie and Yi Hehai.The Ai Yia dramas are very popular and have been performed for three centuries.

Zhuang dramas are performed on New Year’s Day and at other festivals,especially the traditional Zhuang Longdong festival.Thousands of people have acted in these traditional dramas.The scripts use Chinese characters to represent the local language,but only exist in hand-written form due to being confiscated at various times both before and after 1949.About three hundred dramas still remain including historical dramas Nong Zhigao,Zheng Fa Pingnan Nong Zhigao(also named Wuhu Pingnan),Shuang Guitu,Lie Nv Jiufu,Da Nao San Men Jie,and medieval Chinese classics such as The Butterfly Lovers,Romance of the Three Kingdoms,Water Margin(Outlaws of the Marsh)and Journey to the West.Local artists collect these manuscripts and cherish them as treasures.

3.Folksongs.Zhuang folksongs has a long history and can be divided into two types: those that are sung and those that are recited or changed.The Bu Yue branch of Zhuang in Funing County call their folksongs fwen in their Northern Zhuang dialect.The different branches and areas of Zhuang people have their own types of folksongs,and have at least seventeen distinctive tunes.(A more recent culture survey in 2003 found twenty different melodies.)Folksongs are mainly used in courtship,to express good wishes and blessings at weddings,to praise others,for satires,riddles,etc.There has been a tremendous volume of folksongs sung in the past and still in use today.The Funing Bu Yue Northern Zhuang folksongs have had a fixed structure for many years consisting of lines of five syllables with ten or more lines comprising a single song.The songs sung antiphonally are more flexible.The Nong Southern Zhuang folksongs can have seven syllables per line,with only two lines needed to compose a song,and sometimes without traditional fixed lyrics.Rather,in the Nong antiphonal folk-singing,the second singer first listens to the lines sung by the first singer and the spontaneously improvises words to sing in response to the first singer’s lyrics,while conforming to the seven-syllable couplet format.Due to rapid timing and the fear of failing to respond in time,singers in this type of singing concentrate and have a serious demeanor like an athlete.When the melodies have not been conformed to national or international tastes,the melodies to which Zhuang folksongs are sung vary according to the branches,environment and objects,with a distinctive sound unique to the Zhuang,and unlike those of the nationalities.

Folk legends.The traditional legends of Zhuang are emotionally very moving.The more popular legends include“Bulokdo”(the legendary Zhuang ancestor),“God Forms People from Clay”“The Brother the Sister Make Humanity”“Yawang”“Nong Zhigao”“Meixiang”“The Girl with Black Teeth”“The Story of Bohe”and“Snail Girl”.

Dancing.Zhuang dances are elegant and simple.They include the Fan Dance,the Hand Towel Dance,the Flowering Stick Dance and the Dance of the Witches(also called the Funeral Dance).

(All the above material is extracted from An Ethnography of Funing County.All the above information is true to the original except for minor editing of some sentences and the addition of some necessary implied background information.)