第三节 翻译与篇章文化
语篇是由一个以上的句子或语段组成的用于交际的一段形式衔接、语义连贯的文字，它是一个有机的信息载体。英汉语篇之间既有相似之处，也有不同之处。其中，英汉语篇在组成成分、表现形式上是相同的，但在衔接手段和语篇模式上却有着各自的特点。本节就对英汉篇章文化的不同及其翻译进行详细说明。
一、英汉篇章文化对比
（一）英汉衔接手段对比
语篇是由句子构成的，但不是句子杂乱无章的堆砌，而需要通过一定的衔接手段，使各成分构成逻辑关系才能形成有意义的语篇。语篇衔接大致可分为语法衔接和词汇衔接两类。语法衔接手段包括照应（reference）、省略（ellipsis）、替代（substitution）和连接（conjunction）；词汇手段则包括词汇重述（reiteration）、同义词（synonymy）、上义词（super-ordinate）和搭配（collocation）等。在词汇衔接方面，英汉语篇有着很多相似之处，但在语法衔接方面却有着明显的差异。因此，这里重点对英汉语篇的语法衔接手段进行对比分析。
1.照应
照应指用代词等语法手段来指称说话或行文中谈论、说明的对象，从而把语篇有机衔接起来，实现语篇意义的连贯。由此可以看出，照应是一种语义关系。
例句1：
Readers look for the topics of sentence to tell them what a whole passages is“about”，if they feel that its sequence of topics focuses on a limited set of related topic，then they will feel they are moving through that passage from cumulatively coherent point of view.
例子中代词they所代表的含义是由它的所指对象决定的。所以，要对其进行解释，就要从上下文中寻找与其照应的词语。分析上下文关系可以得出，they和readers形成照应关系。在汉语语篇中，照应关系也十分常见。
例句2：
她不是鲁镇人。有一年的冬初，四叔家里要换个女工，做中人的卫老婆子带她进来了，头上扎着白头绳，乌裙，蓝夹袄，月白背心，年纪大约二十六七，脸色青黄，但两颊却还是红的。卫老婆子叫她祥林嫂，说是自己母家的邻舍，死了当家人，所以出来做工了。
（鲁迅《祝福》）
例子中的三个“她”均指代上文中的“祥林嫂”，这种照应关系也使得上下文衔接成为一个连贯的整体。就照应的类型来讲，英汉两种语言并没有多大的区别，但是就照应手段在语篇中使用的频率而言，英语使用人称代词的频率要远高于汉语。这主要是因为英语语篇避免重复，而汉语行文习惯实称。
例句3：
Parents should not only love their children but also help and educate them.
父母不仅应当爱护自己的子女，还应当帮助自己的子女，教育自己的子女。
2.替代
替代是为了避免重复而常被采用的一种重要的语言手段，替代形式的意义必须从所替代的成分那里去查找。这种衔接手段常见于英语语篇和汉语语篇中。
例句1：
The Americans are reducing their defense expenditure this year，I wonder if the Russians will do too.
美国人今年在削减国防开支，我怀疑俄国人也会这样做。
虽然英汉语篇中都使用替代手段，但是英语语篇中使用的频率要高于汉语语篇，这是因为汉语多习惯借助原词复现的方式来达到语篇的衔接与连贯。
例句2：
Efforts on the part of the developing nations is certainly required.So is a reordering of priorities to give agriculture the first call on national resources.
发展中国家做出努力当然是必须的。调整重点，让国家的资源首先满足农业的需要，这当然也是必需的。
另外，在替代手段的运用上，英语常用代词表替代，而汉语经常重复名词。这也是英汉语篇在替代衔接方面最显著的差异。
例句3：
Electrical charges of a similar kind repel each other and those that are dissimilar attract.
同性电荷相斥，异性电荷相吸。
3.省略
省略，顾名思义，就是将语言结构中的某个不必要的部分省去不提。省略既是一种避免重复，使表达简练、紧凑的修辞方式，又是一种重要的语篇衔接手段。省略在英汉语篇中都经常被用到，但是使用频率却存在差异，即英语语篇中使用省略的频率要远高于汉语语篇，这是因为英语的省略多伴随着形态或形式上的标记，不易引起歧义。
例句1：
每个人都对他所属的社会负有责任，通过社会对人类负有责任。
Everybody has a responsibility to the society of which he is a part and through this to mankind.
上述例子中，英语中用to这一形式标记来说明省略的动词成分，因此句子显得前后连贯、结构紧凑。但汉语则习惯重复这一成分。
英汉省略的另一个显著差异是省略成分不同。由于汉语中的主语具有较强的控制力和承接力，所以汉语中常省略主语，而英语则需要保留句子中出现的每一个主语。
例句2：
柯灵，生于1909年，浙江省绍兴人，中国现代作家，1926年发表第一篇作品，叙事诗《织布的妇人》，1930年任《儿童时代》编辑，1949年以前一直在上海从事报纸编辑工作，并积极投入电影、话剧运动，解放后，曾任《文汇报》副总编辑，现任上海电影局顾问。
KeLing was born in Shaoxing，Zhejiang Province，in1909.He is a modem Chinese writer。His first writing，a narrative poem“The Woman Weaver”appeared in 1926.He was one of the editors of“Children's Times”from 1930 on Wards.Before 1949 he was all along engaged in editorial work in newspaper offices and took an active part in activities of film and modern drama in Shanghai.After liberation he filled the post of deputy editor in chief of“Wenhui Bao”for a period.He is at present adviser of Shanghai Film Bureau.
上述汉语语篇中主语“柯灵”出现一次之后，后面的句子都将这一主语省略掉了，但省略的主语暗含在了上下文之中，所以主语的省略并不影响读者的理解。而在英语译文中，原文省略的主语都用人称代词he补全了。
4.连接
连接关系主要是通过连接词或是一些副词、词组来实现的。语篇中的连接成分往往是具有明确含义的词语。通过这些词语，人们可以有效地了解句子之间的语义联系。英国当代语言学家韩札德（Halliday）将连接词语的功能分为四类：additive（添加、递进），adversative（转折），causal（因果），temporal（时序）。这四种连接词可分别由and，but，so，then来表达。
添加、递进是指在写完一句话之后，还可以在此基础上添加内容。常见的连接词有and，in addition，furthermore，what is more等。
转折是指前后两句的意义截然相反。常见的表示转折的连接词有but，however，on the other hand，conversely等。
因果关系是指通过各种方式体现的原因与结果的关系。常见的表示因果关系的连接词有because，so，for this reason，consequently等。
时序关系指的是语篇中事件发生的时间关系。常见的连接词有first，formerly，then，in the end，next等。
上述介绍的几种连接关系在汉语语篇中同样存在。
表增补、添加关系的连接词有“而且”、“此外”、“再说”、“再则”、“况且”等。
表转折关系的连接词有“但是”、“可是”、“然而”、“从另一方面来说”等。
表因果关系的连接词有“因为”、“由于”、“所以”、“因此”、“于是”、“结果是”、“正因为如此”、“由于这一原因”等。
表时序关系的连接词语有“后来”、“尔后”、“接着”、“正在这时”、“此前”、“原先”、“此后”、“最后”等。
可以看出，在功能和出现的位置（多数出现在句首）方面，英汉语篇的连接词是大致相同的。但在连接词的使用方面却存在着显性与隐性的差别。
例如：
……我不习惯与朋友合作，我觉得还是自己独立地想点什么就写点什么，写好写坏写成写不成，都由自己担着。一说合作，心理上的压力就非常大。
表面来看上述例子的语言表述显得十分松散，而且也没有明显的连接词，但是就内在含义来讲却是连贯的，读者也会很容易理解语句之间所表示的因果关系，这就是汉语语篇的隐性连接，仅靠语句的先后顺序就能表达出语篇的逻辑关系。再如：
A second aspect of technology transfer concentrates on US high technology exports.China has correctly complained in the past that the US was unnecessarily restrictive in limiting technology sales to China.Recently some liberalization has taken place and major increases in technology transfers have taken place as the result.However，some items continue to be subject to restrictions and unnecessary delay，in part because the US Government subunits many items to COCOM for approval.There is significant room for improvement with the US bureaucracy and COCOM.
But there is also reason to believe that the flow of technology will continue to grow and that much of the major new technological innovation likely to occur in the US in coming years will be available to China.A I so，as new technology is developed in the US and other industrialized countries，older technologies will become available at a lower price and export resections on them will ease.
上述英语语篇使用了八个连接词（黑体字部分）将整个语篇紧密地连接在了一起，由此可以清晰地看出英语显性的特点。
（二）英汉语篇模式对比
语篇模式是通过语言社团长期的积累并在以往经验的基础上形成的一些城市化或定型的语篇组织形式或策略（Hoey，1983）。语篇模式的使用体现了语言交际的规约性，在语篇的形成和理解过程中发挥着重要作用。在英汉两种语言中，语篇模式就有着显著的差异。以下就分别来了解一下英语语篇模式和汉语语篇模式，并从中了解英汉语篇的差异。
1.英语语篇模式
（1）概括具体模式。概括—具体模式又称“一般—特殊模式”、“预览—细节模式”和“综合—例证模式”。它是英语中最常见的一种语篇模式，其大致结构可通过以下形式来表示。
来看下面例子：
All forms of activity lead to boredom when performed on a routine basis.We can see this principle at work in people of all ages.On Christmas morning children play with their new toys and games.But the novelty soon wears off，and by January those same toys can be found tucked away in the attic.When parents bring home a pet，their child gladly grooms it.Within a short time，however，the burden of caring for the animal is shifted to the parents Adolescents enter high school with enthusiasm but are soon looking forward to graduation.How many adults，who now complain about the long drives to work，eagerly drove for hours at a time when they first obtained their licenses？Before people retire，they usually talk about doing all of the interesting things that they never had time to do while working.But soon after retirement.the golfing.the fishing.the reading and all of the other pastimes become as boring as the jobs they left.And like the child in January.they go searching for new toys.
上述语篇中的第一句是概括陈述。在接下来的内容中，作者分别以儿童、青少年、成年人及老年人为例来论证第一句所提到的观点，即所有的活动形式都会变得无趣。
（2）问题—解决模式。问题解决模式的语篇描述顺序为：说明情况—出现问题—做出反应—解决问题—做出评价。但其程序并不是一成不变的，有时也会有所变动。例如：
（A）Helicopters are very convenient for dropping freight by parachute.but this system has its problems.（B）Somehow the landing impact has to be cushioned to give a soft landing.（C）The movement to be absorbed depends on the weight and the speed at which the charge falls.（D）Unfortunately most normal spring systems bounce the load as it lands，sometimes turning it over.（E）To avoid this，Bertin，developer of the aero train，has come up with an air-cushion system which assures a safe and soft landing.
上述语篇第一句提出了一个情景，第二句提出了问题，第三句说明了对这一问题的反应，最后一句对这一反映做出了评价。
（3）主张—反主张模式。在这种模式中，作者通常会先提出一种普遍认可的主张和观点，然后说明自己的主张和观点，或者提出与之相反的观点。其中，主张部分可以是假设的观点，反主张部分可以是对真实情况的描述，因此这一模式又称“假设—真实模式”。这一模式常见于论辩类篇章中。
例如：
Recently，more and more college students are mad about in business and taking part-time jobs.Some students give all their attention to keeping their business accounts straight，and some even pack up their books and turn entirely to business.They said that they are taking real-life courses to learn more about society and so they can keep pace with the outside world.
This is only a side of the story，however.They are actually selling themselves out as cheap unskilled labor，and at the same time，they are taking work from people who don't have access to a university education.What's more，they fail to live up to the expectation both the country and their parents hold on them，that is，they shall make good use of their innate talents and limited time in the university to finish higher education.
I think that，as college students，our priority is to study.Half-hearted efforts will only bring marginal results，and the opportunity to excel in society through a solid educational foundation will have been wasted.
第一段，作者点明了一些大学生所持有的“支持兼职工作”的观点。第二段，作者指出他们的观点并不全面，并用事例来驳斥对方的观点。第三段，作者总结了自己的观点“学习更重要”。整个篇章的架构属于主张—反主张模式。
（4）叙述模式。叙述语篇模式就是按照一定的时间顺序对事件发生的过程进行描述，在描述的过程中通常要交代清楚五个方面的问题，即何时（when）、何地（where）、何事（what）、何人（who）以及为何（why），简称五个“W”。它常用于人物传记、虚拟故事、历史故事和新闻报道中。例如：
On July 20，1969，at least a half billion people from 49 countries kept their eyes fixed on television screens.Three American astronauts were waiting on spaceship，“Apollo 11”sitting on top of a rocket that was 36 stories high.Their destination is the moon.
All those who watched knew that the landing of men on the moon was a tremendous achievement.They knew also that something might go wrong at any time.When the men got to the moon，would they be able to land？Would the surface be smooth enough？Would they able to walk on the moon ？If so，what would they find there？
The final count down had come.Five...four...three...two...one fire rockets！ The three astronauts blasted off into the outer space in one of the most exciting adventures in history.
Just 76 hours after they left the earth's surface they orbited the moon.A short time later two of the astronauts left their spaceship for a lunar landing craft and were preparing to land on the Surface of the moon.While millions of anxious people back on earth were watching on television，the first astronaut，Neil Armstrong cautiously climbed Out of the landing craft and stepped down.When his left foot touched the dusty surface，he said：“That's one small step for a man，one giant leap of mankind.”
At last man is walking on the moon.
上述语篇是一个典型的叙事语篇模式，该语篇包含了时间、地点、人物和事件通常该模式具有两种形式.其中一种是整体比较。
例如：
Pure science primarily concerned with the development of theories（or models）establishing relationships between the phenomena of the universe.When they are sufficiently validated these theories（hypotheses，models）become the working laws（or principles of science.In carrying out this work.the pure scientist usually disregards its application to practical affairs confining his attention to explanations describing the establishment of the life cycle of a particular species of insect living in Polar environment are said to be examples of pure science（basic re-search），having no apparent connection（for the moment）with technology，i.e.applied science.
Applied science，on the other hand，is directly concerned with the application of the working laws of pure science to the practical affairs of life，and to increasing mans control over his environment，thus leading to the development of new techniques processes and machines.Such activities as investigating the strength and uses of material，extending the findings of pure mathematics to improve the sampling procedures used in agriculture or social science，and developing the potentialities of atomic energy，are all examples of the work of the applied scientist or technologist.
It seems that these two branches of science are mutually dependent and interacting，and that the so-called division between the pure scientist and the applied scientist is more apparent than real.
上述语篇采用了整体比较法展开说明。其中，第一段说明了纯科学的特点，第二段介绍了应用科学的特点，最后一段则概括说明二者之间既相互独立又彼此作用的密切关系。整个语篇在整体上给人以十分工整的感觉。另外一种是对应点比较。
例如：
There are basic differences between the large and small enterprises.In the small enterprise you operate primarily through personal contacts.In the large enterprise you have established policies，channels of organization，and fairly rigid procedure.In the small enterprise you have moreover，immediate effectiveness in a very small area.You can see the effect of your work and of your decisions right away，once you are a little bit above the ground floor.In the large enterprise，even the man at the top is only a cog in a big machine.To be sure，his actions affect a much greater area than the actions and the decisions of the man in the small organization，but his effectiveness is remote，indirect，and elusive.In a small and even in a middle-size business，you are normally exposed to all kinds of experiences and expected to do a great many things without too much help or guidance.In the large organization you are normally taught one thing thoroughly.In the small one the danger is of becoming the man who knows more and more about less and less.
上述语篇采用的是对应点比较模式，将各点一一对应比较，能给读者留下深刻的印象。
2.汉语语篇模式
汉语语篇模式既有与英语语篇模式相似的地方，如主张—反主张模式、匹配比较模式和叙事模式都是基本相同的，也有与英语语篇模式的不同之处。其不同之处具体表现为以下两点。
（1）汉语语篇的焦点和重心的位置不固定，具有流动性。例如：
两百多年前，法国一位医生想发明一种能判断胸腔健康状况的器械。他经过刻苦钻研，始终想不出什么好办法。一天他领着女儿到公园玩。当女儿玩跷跷板的时候，他偶然发现用手在跷跷板上轻轻地敲，敲打的人自己几乎听不见，而别人把耳朵贴近跷跷板的另一端却听得清清楚楚。他高兴地大喊起来“有办法了”！马上回家用木料做了一个喇叭形的东西，把小的一端塞在耳朵里，大的一端贴在别人的胸部，不仅声音清晰，而且使用方便。世界上第一个听诊器就这样诞生了。如此看来，科学家的灵感并不是什么神秘莫测的东西。关键在于勤奋，在于实践，在于不怕失败，努力探索。鲁班发明锯子的传说同样给我们深刻的启示。据说他有一次上山用手抓着丝茅草攀登，一下子把手拉破了。鲁班发现丝茅草两边的细齿不是可以锯树吗？他立刻和铁匠一起试制，做成了木工最常用的工具——锯子。许多人都被茅草割破过手，而只有鲁班被这件事启发，发明了锯子。
上述语篇中，焦点并没有出现在文首和文尾，而是出现在了文中。由此可以看出汉语语篇焦点的灵活性。
（2）汉语的焦点有时很模糊，并不点明，有时甚至没有焦点。例如：
近一段时期以来，以报纸、广播、电视上得知，不少地方都在做同一项工作——补发拖欠教师的工资。有的是“省市主要领导亲自过问”，有的是“限令在教师节前全部补齐”。湖北某市的领导还卖掉日产“公爵王”轿车，把35万元卖车钱用于还欠教师的债。总之，这些报道在宣传“领导的尊师重教之情”，向我们报告着一个又一个的好消息。
以上是文章的第一段，这篇文章的中心思想是很多领导都是嘴上说尊重教师，但实际上却不是。但是通读整个语篇（共五段），却找不到能够明确表达这一思想的句子，可见作者的思想是不断流动的。
二、英汉语篇的翻译
语篇是由词、句组成的，所以语篇的翻译在做好词、句翻译的基础上，要注重语篇的衔接、连贯还有语域，这样才能使译文更加完整，也才能符合译入语的表达习惯。
（一）语篇衔接
对语篇进行翻译，要正确理解原文语篇，注意通过衔接手段，将句子与句子、段落与段落按照逻辑组织起来，构成一个完整或相对完整的语义单位。
例如：
The human brain weighs three pounds，but in that three pounds are ten billion neurons and a hundred billion smaller cells.These many billions of cells are interconnected in a vastly complicated network that we can't begin to unravel yet ...Computer switches and components number in the thousands rather than in the billions.
人脑只有三磅重，但就在这三磅物质中，却包含着一百亿个神经细胞，以及一千亿个更小的细胞。这上百亿、上千亿的细胞相互联系形成一个无比复杂的网络，人类迄今还无法解开这其中的奥秘……电脑的转换器和零件只是成千上万，而不是上百亿、上千亿。
（二）语篇连贯
语义连贯是话语的重要标志。翻译时只有清楚理解看似相互独立、实为相互照应的句内、句间或段间关系，并且加以充分表达，才能准确传达原文意思。
例如：
He was a little man，barely ftve feet tall，with a narrow chest and one shoulder higher than the other and he was thin almost to emaciation He had a crooked nose，but a fine brow and his color was fresh.His eyes，though small，were blue，lively and penetrating.He was natty in his dress.He wore a small blond wig，a black tie，and a shirt with ruffles round the throat and wrists ；a coat，breeches and waistcoat of fine cloth，gray silk stockings and shoes with silver buckles.He carried his three-cornered hat under his arm and in his hand a gold-headed cane.He walked everyday.rain or fine，for exactly one hour.but if the weather was threatening，his servant walked behind him with a big umbrella.
他个头短小，长不过五尺，瘦骨伶仃，身板细窄，且一肩高一肩低，他长着一副鹰钩鼻子，眉目还算清秀，气色也还好，一双蓝眼睛不大，却迥然有神。他头戴金色发套，衣着非常整洁：皱边的白衬衣配一条黑色领带，质地讲究的马甲外配笔挺的套装，脚着深色丝袜和带白扣的皮鞋。他腋下夹顶三角帽，手上拄根金头拐杖，天天散步一小时，风雨无阻。当然落雨下雪时自有仆人亦步亦趋，为他撑伞。
（三）语篇语域
语篇语域涉及语篇的作用和使用场合。不同类型的语篇有着不同的功能，适用于不同的场合。例如，文学语言应具有美感和艺术性，广告语言应具有号召性和说服力，科技语言则应具有专业性和准确性。所以，在翻译语篇时就要注意原语篇的语域，并使译文与原文具有相同的特点与功能，这样才能使译文形神兼备。
例如：
Established in the 1950s，East China Normal University，led by the Ministry of Education and nourished by the rich resources of the modern city of Shanghai，has developed quickly among the institutions of higher teaming.It was listed as one of the sixteen key universities in China as early as 1959，Nearly fifty years of development has shaped it into a prestigious comprehensive university，influential both at home and abroad.Right at the arrival of the new century，we are determined to seize the opportunities，meet the challenges，unite and work as hard as before，and contribute our fair share to the development of ECNU.
崛起于20世纪50年代初的华东师范大学，得益于物华天宝、人杰地灵的国际大都市上海这片沃土的滋养，又得利于国家和教育部对师范教育的关怀与重视，在全国高教院系调整中发展壮大起来，早在1959年就已跻身于全国76所重点大学之列。经过将近半个世纪的辛勤耕耘，华东师大已经发展成为一所学科比较齐全、师资实力比较雄厚、具有一定办学特色、在国内外具有相当影响的教学科研型大学。在新世纪到来之际，我们一定要抓住机遇，迎接挑战，励精图治，奋发图强，继续发扬艰苦奋斗、团结协作、勇于拼搏、开拓创新的精神，为华东师范大学的振兴与腾飞，贡献出我们所有的智慧与力量。
