世界上有两个主要的法律体系,一个英美法系或普通法法系(common law system),另一个是大陆法系或民法法系(civil law system)。而法律英语主要反映的是英语国家,即普通法系国家的法律文化,这就要求译者对普通法系与大陆法系基本法律框架、法律制度、法律概念及其差异要有相当的了解,否则就会犯下低级错误。现列举几个例子:
1. consideration
这个词语是英语中常见的单词,其意思为“考虑”。但是,在英美合同法,这是一个含义丰富的术语,是合同成立的基础。我国法律界一般将其翻译为“对价”或“约因”。比如在下面这个简单的句子中:If A signs a contract to buy a car from B for $5,000, A's consideration is the $5,000, and B's consideration is the car.如果译者不知道该术语在法律中的特殊含义,而仅仅根据其在普通英语中的含义,将其翻译为“考虑”,其译文就要贻笑大方了。
2. cross-examination/cross-examine
这是英美诉讼制度中的常见术语,英美法系诉讼中的一项重要制度,是有关双方当事人对证人交叉盘问的一整套规范。一般翻译为“交叉质询、交叉询问”。在英美法系国家的庭审中,不管是刑事案件还是民事案件,在通常的诉讼程序,只要有证人出庭,就有可能会接受交叉询问。由于交叉询问是一种专业很强的法庭技术,所以一般对证人交叉询问都是由双方律师进行。比如,在下面这个简单的句子中:The defense may cross-examine the prosecution witnesses. The prosecutor cross-examines the defense witnesses.如果译者仅根据字面的意思,将cross-examine翻译为“十字考试”,这就与原意相距甚远了。
3. negotiable instruments
这个术语是英美票据法中的常见术语,也是国际贸易中的常见术语,一般翻译为“可转让票据”或“可流通票据”,比如支票(check)、汇票(bill of exchange)和本票(promissory note)等。如果在国际商事合同中,仅根据字面意思将其翻译为“谈判工具”,这可能会对交易双方产生严重的后果。同理,如果将negotiating bank翻译为“谈判银行”,也是不正确的。一般将该术语翻译为“议付银行”,即购买或贴现汇票的银行。
以《联合国一九七八年海上货物运输公约》(United Nation Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea, 1978)(5)第16条第1款有关“提单”的规定为例,该句的英语词汇就有102个:
If the bill of lading(6) contains particulars concerning the general nature, leading marks, number of packages or pieces, weight or quantity of the goods which the carrier or other person issuing the bill of lading on his behalf knows or has reasonable grounds to suspect do not accurately represent the goods actually taken over or, where a shipped bill of lading issues, loaded, or if he had no reasonable means of checking such particulars, the carrier or such other person must insert in the bill of lading a reservation specifying these inaccuracies, grounds of suspicion of the absence of reasonable means of checkin.
在这句话中,包括大量的从句和修饰成分:两个并列的由if引导的状语从句;在第一个if引导的状语从句中,既有现在分词(concerning、issuing)和过去分词(taken、loaded)引导的定语成分,还有一个定语从句(which引导)和状语从句(where引导);主句为the carrier or such other person must ...,在主句中,还有specifying引导的修饰成分。
Party A stops to deliver goods if the other party suspends payment to its creditors or generally is unable to pay its debts as and when they fall due or suffers the making of an administration order or has a receiver(7)(including an administrative receiver) or manager appointed over the whole or any part of its assets or if any order is made or a resolution passed for its winding up(except for the purpose of amalgamation(8) or reconstruction(9)) or if it enters into any composition or arrangement with its creditors or calls a meeting of its creditors with intent to enter into such an arrangement or composition or if it ceases to carry on business or the other party suffers the occurrence of any similar event.
这个合同条款共127个单词,主句为Party A stops to deliver goods,其他内容都是并列的状语从句,这些从句中又有大量的并列成分和修饰成分。
The undersigned hereby agrees that the new products whereto this trade name is more appropriate are made in China.(签署人/本人特此同意在中国生产与本商标名更相称的新产品。)
又如:
In consideration of the mutual promises, covenants and conditions hereinafter set forth, the two parties of the contract hereto agree as follows.(鉴于以下确立的相互允诺,约定和条件,合同双方在此达成如下协议。)
No Person shall be a Representative(10) who shall not have attained to the age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen.
在该条中,对众议员的条件进行了严格界定:age of twenty five Years, seven Years a Citizen of United States,Inhabitant of that State。在翻译的过程中,这些限定性的条件要重点关注,准确翻译:凡年龄未满二十五岁,取得美利坚合众国公民资格未满七年,于某州当选而并非该州居民者,不得任众议员。
又如,合同的条款可能会做出下述规定:
This obligation shall include, without limitation, the implementation of appropriate technical and organisational measures to protect personal data against accidental or unlawful destruction or accidental loss, alteration, unauthorised disclosure or access and against all other unlawful forms of processing.
在本合同条款中,为了对“obligation”进行全面规定,使用“without limitation”进行说明,并在本条款的最后,使用一个“兜底”规定:“all other unlawful forms of processing”,以尽可能全面地对未来可能发生的情况进行规定。本句可译为:本义务应包括,但不限于,采取适当的技术措施和组织措施保护个人数据不受意外或非法破坏或意外丢失、篡改、未经授权的披露、进入及其他任何非法形式的处理。
再比如,“当怀特先生死亡时,其住所地是英格兰”。这个简单的中文句子不能译为:When Mr.White died, he lived in England. 因为在法律中,“住所地”是一个具有特定含义的术语,与“居所”、“居住”等术语的含义不同,影响到遗产的分配,其对应的英文术语是:domicile。本句应当翻译成:When Mr.White died, he was domiciled in England.
还有一些英文原版的法律辞典,比如《布莱克法律词典》(Black's Law Dictionary(已出到第9版),以及法律出版社引进的《朗文法律辞典》等等。其中,Black's Law Dictionary是内容最为全面,也是最为权威的一本。该辞典收录了超过43000条解释和3000条引文,以及5300多条单词的不同拼写方式和同义词,可以称得上是法律术语的一部大百科全书。
以第8版为例,它主要有如下特征:第一,内容更为新颖,词典收录了一些新的法律术语。例如:denial of service attack(拒绝服务攻击)、same-sex marriage(同性婚姻)、cyber piracy(网络侵权;网路盗版)、veggie-libel law(蔬食诽谤)等等。第二,词条的释义更为准确。许多词条之释义援引了西部出版公司众多重要的、权威的著作;此外,词典中的许多词条的释义还与《美国法大全续编》(Corpus Juris Secundum)互证。第三,词典新增了大量法律俚语(legal slang)。“smurf”(蓝精灵)(12)就是一例,smurf是指“参与洗钱运作的一种人,他们进行1万美金以下的交易(以规避法律)”。主编在词典中还指出这一俚语最初源自卡通片《蓝色小精灵》中的同名形象。第四,词典的释义更加简洁。主编的释义现代、简洁,但他通常仍会从历史的视角出发,在术语运用的具体语境下给出词语的意义。这种解释在大多数情形下,都极具启发性。(13)
(1)It is the central concept in the common law of contracts and is required, in most cases, for a contract to be enforceable. It is the price one pays for another's promise.
(2)In law, it is the interrogation of a witness called by one's opponent.
(3)It is a document guaranteeing the payment of a specific amount of money, either on demand, or at a set time.
(4)It is a written order by the drawer to the drawee to pay money to the payee.
(5)In law, it is the status or attribution of being a permanent resident in a particular jurisdiction.
3.请将下列汉语句子翻译成英文,注意其中专门术语的表达。
(1)被告可以通过证明损失系由原告自己或者不可抗力因素造成,而免除自己的责任。
(2)英美法系司法程序的显著要素就是交叉询问。
(3)如若没有相互的对价,就没有合同。
4.请将下列英文句子翻译成汉语,注意其中专门术语的表达。
(1)The witness will be orally cross-examined on his evidence by the defendant's counsel.
(2)We hereby certify to the best of our knowledge that the foregoing statement is true and correct.
(3)Neither party to this Agreement shall be liable to the other for any delay or failure in performance which is due to any cause outside its reasonable control or avoidance, including, without limitation, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Department for Culture, Media and Sports, OFCOM or any other regulatory or Government organisation having jurisdiction over the affairs of either party which prevents the party from meeting its obligations under this Agreement, acts of god, accident, riot, malicious acts of third parties, civil commotion, strike, lockout or industrial dispute by a third party, unavoidable power failure or fire(a “Force Majeure Event”).
(4)If performance of the obligations under this Agreement is substantially prevented for a continuous period of one month or more by virtue of a Force Majeure Event, the party not being prevented from performing shall be entitled to terminate this Agreement upon written notice to the other party.
(4) Susan Sarcevic: New Approach to Legal Translation, Kluwer Law International, 1997, p.147.参见屈文生:“论Susan Sarcevic的法律翻译观”,载《外语研究》2009年第3期。
(5) 简称“汉堡规则”(Hamburg Rules, HBR)。
(6) bill of lading:提单。简称B/L。A bill of lading is a document issued by a carrier to a shipper, acknowledging that specified goods have been received on board as cargo for conveyance to a named place for delivery to the consignee who is usually identified.
(7) receiver:破产财产管理人。A person appointed by a court, or by a corporation or other person, for the protection or collection of property. Usually the receiver administers the property of a bankrupt, or property that is subject of litigation, pending the outcome of a lawsuit.
(8) amalgamation:合并。In general, amalgamation is the process of combining or uniting multiple entities into one form.
(9) reconstruction:重组。Reconstruction in law refers typically to the transfer of a company's(or several companies') business to a new company.