Lesson 2　Legal Systems: Common Law and Civil Law
第二课　普通法系与大陆法系

Ⅰ. Text & Its Translation

Every independent country has its own legal system⁽¹⁾. The systems vary according to each country's social traditions and form of government. But most systems can be classed as either(1) a common-law system⁽²⁾ or(2) a civil-law system⁽³⁾. The United States, Canada, Great Britain, and other Englishspeaking countries have a Common-law system. Most other countries have a civil-law system. Many countries combine features of both systems⁽⁴⁾. A general distinction can be made between civil law jurisdictions⁽⁵⁾, which codify their laws, and common law systems, where judge made law is not consolidated.

1. Common-law System

The Common-law system prevails in England, the United States, and other countries colonized by England. It is distinct from the civil-law system, which predominates in Europe and in areas colonized by France and Spain. The Common-law system is used in all the states of the United States except Louisiana, where French Civil Law combined with English Criminal Law to form a hybrid system. The Common-law system is also used in Canada, except in the Province of Quebec, where the French civil-law system prevails.

Anglo-American common law evolved chiefly from three English Crown courts of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries: the Exchequer,⁽⁶⁾ the King's Bench,⁽⁷⁾ and the Common Pleas.⁽⁸⁾ These courts eventually assumed jurisdiction over disputes previously decided by local or manorial courts⁽⁹⁾, such as baronial⁽¹⁰⁾, admiral's(maritime)⁽¹¹⁾, guild⁽¹²⁾, and forest courts⁽¹³⁾, whose jurisdiction was limited to specific geographic or subject matter areas. Equity courts, which were instituted to provide relief to litigants in cases where Common-law relief was unavailable, also merged with Common-law courts. This consolidation of jurisdiction over most legal disputes into several courts was the framework for the modern AngloAmerican judicial system.

Common-law courts base their decisions on prior judicial pronouncements rather than on legislative enactments. Common-law judges rely on their predecessors decisions of actual controversies, rather than on abstract codes or texts, to guide them in applying the law. Common-law judges find the grounds for their decisions in law report⁽¹⁴⁾, which contain decisions of past controversies. Under the doctrine of stare decisis, Common-law judges are obliged to adhere to previously decided cases, or precedents, where the facts are substantially the same. A court's decision is binding authority for similar cases decided by the same court or by lower courts within the same jurisdiction. The decision is not binding on courts of higher rank within that jurisdiction or courts in other jurisdictions, but it may be considered as persuasive authority.

Under a Common-law system, disputes are settled through an adversarial exchange of arguments and evidence. Both parties present their cases before a neutral fact finder, either a judge or a jury. The judge or jury evaluates the evidence, applies the appropriate law to the facts, and renders a judgment in favor of one of the parties. Following the decision, either party may appeal the decision to a higher court. Appellate courts in a Common-law system may review only findings of law,⁽¹⁵⁾not determinations of fact.⁽¹⁶⁾

The lawmaking role of legislatures in common law countries has increased greatly during the 1900's. For example, the United States Congress has made major changes in American contract and property law. The changes have dealt, for example, with such matters as labormanagement relations⁽¹⁷⁾, workers' wages and hours, health, safety, and environmental protection. Nevertheless, Common-law countries have kept the basic feature of the English legal system, which is the power of judges to make laws. In addition, constitutional law⁽¹⁸⁾ in these countries continues the Common-law tradition of defending the people's rights and liberties.

2. Civil-law System

Civil-law systems are based mainly on statutes⁽¹⁹⁾. The majority of civil-law countries have assembled their statutes into one or more carefully organized collections called codes.

Most modern law codes can be traced back to the famous code that was commissioned by the Roman Emperor Justinian Ⅰ⁽²⁰⁾ in the A.D. 500's. Justinian's code updated and summarized the whole of Roman law, which was called the Corpus Juris Civilis, meaning Body of Civil Law⁽²¹⁾. For this reason, legal systems that are based on the Roman system of statute and code law are known as civil-law systems. This use of the term civil law should not be confused with its use as an alternate term for private law.⁽²²⁾ civil-law systems include both private law and public law.

(Corpus Iuris Civilis, 1583)

The monumental Corpus Juris Civilis commissioned by Justinian still influences the evolution of law in virtually every civil-law country. The roots of civil law are so deeply imbedded in French jurisprudence that French universities did not even teach common law until 1689. It affects legal rules, legal thought, legal classifications, the treatment of legal precedents and techniques, and the organization of court systems.

One interesting aspect of civil law is that it transfers from place to place more easily than common law. It is sometimes said that there are two branches of civil law: French and German. The civil codes of both countries have proven particularly adaptable. For example, the French Civil Code(or Napoleonic Code)⁽²³⁾, first promulgated by Napoleon Ⅰ in 1804, is the basis of the laws of Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and parts of Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. Spain, Romania, and parts of Africa and South America also borrowed the Code Civil as a guide for local civil codes. In North America, for example, the civil laws of both the state of Louisiana and the Canadian province of Quebec are rooted in the Code Civil. Inherited from the Holy Roman Empire⁽²⁴⁾, the German Civil Code(Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch, or BGB), which was enacted in 1900, also reveals the strong influence of Roman civil law. Although its reach has been much narrower than that of the French Code Civil, it has been important in such farreaching sites as Thailand, China, Japan, Eastern Europe, and Greece.

(First page of the 1804 original edition.)

Ⅰ．课文及译文

每个独立的国家都有其法律体系。法律体系因各国的社会传统和国家结构形式不同而有所不同。然而，大多数法律体系或者可被归入普通法系，或者可被归入大陆法系。美国、加拿大、英国和其他英语国家属于普通法系。其他大多数国家属于大陆法体系。还有很多国家兼有二者的特色。大陆法司法管辖区和普通法系之间存在的主要差异在于，前者将其法律法典化，而对于后者，“法官造法”未得到汇编整合。

1．普通法系

英国、美国以及其他过去是英国殖民统治的国家是普通法系国家。普通法系区别与大陆法系，后者在欧洲以及其他过去是法国和西班牙殖民的国家中占统治地位。美国（路易斯安那州除外）各州均采用普通法系，路易斯安纳州的情况特殊，它形成一个由法国民法与英国刑法共同构成的混合体系。在加拿大，除魁北克采用法国式大陆法系外，余下地区均采用普通法系。

盎格鲁-美利坚普通法主要产生于三个英国王室法院：财政诉讼法院、王座法院和普通诉讼法院。上述法院最终取得了原先归地方法院或领地法院（如男爵法院、海事法院、行会和王室猎场法院，它们的司法管辖权仅限于特定的地区或特定的事项）管辖之纠纷的司法管辖权。衡平法院最初设立的初衷是为了向那些不能获得普通法救济的诉讼当事人提供救济，后来也并入了普通法法院体系。绝大多数法律争议的管辖权现已合并至数个法院管辖，这成为现代英美法院体系的基本框架。

普通法法院是基于先前的司法裁决，而不是依据立法判案的。对于普通法法官而言，引导他们适用法律的是历任法官曾经对事实争议作出的裁决，而不是抽象的法典或者文本。普通法法官从收录历史争议裁决的判例汇编中为他们的裁决寻找依据。依据遵循先例原则，如果案件的事实基本一致，则普通法法官必须作出与已决案件（或先例）保持一致的裁决。法院的一则判决对于同一法院或同一法域的下级法院在（今后）审理类似案件时构成“有约束力的先例”。该判决对于本法域内的上级法院或其他法域内的法院并无约束力，但可被视为“有说服力的先例”。

在普通法系下，争议的解决靠对抗双方辩论与证据的交锋来实现。当事双方将其案件焦点展示给一个中立的事实裁定人（法官或者陪审团）。法官或者陪审团负责评估证据，对案件事实适用适当的法律，并作出有利于其中一方的判决。判决作出后，任何一方当事人均上诉至更高一级的法院。普通法系的上诉法院（在审理上诉案件时）仅审查原审法院判决中“对适用法律的裁决”，不审查“对争议事实的裁决”。

在20世纪，普通法国家的立法机关在制定法律中所起的作用在不断地提升。例如，美国国会对美国合同法和财产法作出了很大程度的修订。修订针对的主要是诸如劳资关系、工人工资和工作时间、健康、安全和环境保护之类的事项。然而，普通法国家始终保持着英国法律体系的基本特色，即法官造法的权力。此外，这些国家的宪法亦始终保持着保护人民权利和自由的普通法传统。

2．大陆法系

大陆法系主要是建立在制定法（司法机关制定的法案）基础之上的。大多数大陆法国家将它们的制定法编纂成一部法律，或者将它们的制定法更精细地进行编纂成法典。

大多数现代法典可以追溯到罗马皇帝优士丁尼一世在公元6世纪时组织人员编纂的那部著名法典。优士丁尼的法典更新和总结了整个罗马法，它被称为《优士丁尼民法大全》，即《民法大全》。由此原因，基于罗马的制定法体系或法典法体系的法律体系就被称为大陆法体系。术语“civil law”的上述用法不要和该术语作为“私法”的替代性术语的用法相混淆。大陆法法系包括私法和公法。

优士丁尼组织编纂的这部不朽的《国法大全》依然影响着每一个大陆法国家的法律演化。法国的大学在1689年之前一直没有教授“普通法”，由此可见大陆法在法国法律体系中所扎根基之深。大陆法影响了（法国的）法律规则、法律思想、法律分类、法律先例和技术的处理，以及法院体系的架构。

大陆法的一个有趣方面是，它比普通法更容易地从一个地方传播到另一个地方。人们有时会说，大陆法有两个分支：法国和德国。事实证明，这两个国家的民法典具有很强的适应性。例如，拿破仑一世于1804年颁布的《法国民法典》（或者《拿破仑法典》）是比利时、荷兰、卢森堡等国以及德国、瑞士和意大利等国部分地区的法律的基础。西班牙、罗马尼亚以及非洲和南美洲的部分地区也借鉴《法国民法典》并作为制定当地民法典的参考。北美的路易斯安那州和加拿大的魁北克省的民法也都源于《法国民法典》。《德国民法典》于1900年颁布，它源于神圣罗马帝国，深受罗马民法的影响。尽管《德国民法典》比《法国民法典》影响到的区域要少，但前者在诸如泰国、中国、日本、东欧和希腊等广大区域内的影响是非常重要的。

Ⅱ. GLOSSARY
Ⅱ．词汇表

jurisdiction 司法管辖权；法域

the Exchequer 财政诉讼法院

the King's Bench 王座法院

Common Pleas 普通诉讼法院

manorial courts 领地法院

baronial courts 男爵法院

admiral's (maritime) courts 海事法院

guild 同业公会，行会，基尔特

forest courts 王室猎场法院

writ 书面命令，令状

law report 判例汇编

findings of law 对适用法律的裁决

determinations of fact 对事实的决定

Canon law 教会法

the Code of Justinian《优士丁尼法典》

natural law 自然法

positivism 实证主义

codification 法典编纂；法典化

the Code of Hammurabi《汉莫拉比法典》（又译为《汉姆拉比法典》《汉穆拉比法典》等）

the Corpus Juris Civilis《国法大全》（又译为《民法大全》）。

the Napoleonic Code《拿破仑法典》

Ⅲ. SUPPLEMENTARY TEXT
Ⅲ．补充资料

Common law and equity⁽²⁵⁾ are legal systems where decisions by courts are explicitly acknowledged to be legal sources. The “doctrine of precedent”, or stare decisis(Latin for “to stand by decisions”) means that decisions by higher courts bind lower courts. Common law systems also rely on statutes, passed by the legislature, but may make less of a systematic attempt to codify their laws than in a “civil law” system. Common law originated from England and has been inherited by almost every country once tied to the British Empire(except Malta⁽²⁶⁾, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec).

In medieval England, the Norman Conquest⁽²⁷⁾ led to a unification of various tribal customs and hence a law “common” to the whole country. The common law developed when the English monarchy had been weakened by the enormous cost of fighting for control over large parts of France. King John had been forced by his barons to sign a document limiting his authority to pass laws. This “great charter” or Magna Carta of 1215⁽²⁸⁾ also required that the King's entourage of judges hold their courts and judgments at “a certain place” rather than dispensing autocratic⁽²⁹⁾ justice in unpredictable places about the country. A concentrated and elite group of judges acquired a dominant role in lawmaking under this system, and compared to its European counterparts the English judiciary became highly centralized. In 1297, for instance, while the highest court in France had fifty-one judges, the English Court of Common Pleas⁽³⁰⁾ had five. This powerful and tightknit judiciary gave rise to a rigid and inflexible system of common law.

As a result, as time went on, increasing numbers of citizens petitioned the King to override⁽³¹⁾ the common law, and on the King's behalf the Lord Chancellor⁽³²⁾ gave judgment to do what was equitable in a case. From the time of Sir Thomas More⁽³³⁾, the first lawyer to be appointed as Lord Chancellor, a systematic body of equity grew up alongside the rigid common law, and developed its own Court of Chancery⁽³⁴⁾. At first, equity was often criticized as erratic, that it varied according to the length of the Chancellor's foot. But over time it developed solid principles. In the 19th century the two systems were fused into one another. In developing the common law and equity, academic authors have always played an important part. William Blackstone, from around 1760, was the first scholar to describe and teach it. But merely in describing, scholars who sought explanations and underlying structures slowly changed the way the law actually worked.

Ⅳ. EXERCISES
Ⅳ．练习

1. Answer the following questions.

（1）Throughout the world, what are the two kinds of legal systems that most of countries can be classified into?

（2）Give the names of countries with the characteristics of common law system.

（3）Give the names of countries with the characteristics of civil law system.

（4）In United States and Canada, which state or province has the characteristics of civil law system, and why?

2．Translate the following terms into English.

（1）法律体系

（2）普通法系

（3）大陆法系

（4）法国民法典

（5）《汉莫拉比法典》

（6）对事实的决定

3. Translate the following terms into Chinese.

（1）Canon law

（2）property law

（3）labor-management relation

（4）findings of law

（5）Corpus Juris Civilis

4. Match the given terms with the proper explanation.

A. Corpus Juris Civilis

B. the Napoleonic Code

C. The German Civil Code

D. Common-law system

E. civil-law system

（1）It is the first modern legal code to be adopted with a panEuropean scope and it strongly influenced the law of many of the countries formed during and after the Napoleonic Wars.

（2）It is the most comprehensive code of Roman law and the basic document of all modern civil law, compiled by order of Justinian I.

（3）It places great weight on court decisions, which are considered “law” with the same force of law as statutes, and common law courts have had the authority to make law where no legislative statute exists.

（4）It is a legal system inspired by Roman law, the primary feature of which is that laws are written into a collection, codified, and not determined by judges.

（5）It serves as a template for the regulations of several other civil law jurisdictions, including Japan, Thailand, South Korea, People's Republic of China, Greece and the Ukraine.

5. Choose the suitable words from the box and fill in the blanks.

is bound to　legal system　principle　precedent　authority　is distinct from

“Common-law system” is a (1) that gives great precedential weight to common law, on the (2) that it is unfair to treat similar facts differently on different occasions. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, an idealized common law court looks to (3) of relevant courts. If a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court (4) follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. If, however, the court finds that the current dispute (5) all previous cases, judges have the (6) and duty to make law by creating precedent. Thereafter, the new decision becomes precedent, and will bind future courts.

6. Translate the following sentences into Chinese.

（1）Most modern law codes can be traced back to the famous code that was commissioned by the Roman Emperor Justinian I in the A.D.500's, which was called the Corpus Juris Civilis.

（2）The changes have dealt with such matters as labormanagement relations, workers' wages and hours, health, safety, and environmental protection.

（3）Although its reach has been much narrower than that of the French Code Civil, it has been important in such farreaching sites as Thailand, China, Japan, Eastern Europe, and Greece.

（4）Some Common-law principles proved too precious to change. For example, a long line of hard-won precedents defended the rights and liberties of citizens against the unjust use of government power.

（5）Every state in the United States except Louisiana and every Canadian province except Quebec adopted a Common-law system. Louisiana and Quebec were colonized by France, rather than England, and their legal systems are patterned after the French civil-law system.

（6）Civil law holds legislation as the primary source of law, and the court system is usually inquisitorial, unbound by precedent, and composed of specially trained judicial officers with a limited authority to interpret law.

————————————————————

(1) legal system：可译为“法系”，“法律制度”。作为“法系”，亦可称为“legal family”，“legal tradition”等。历史上的“legal system”，还有Chinese legal system， Indian legal system， Islamic legal system等。

(2) common-law system：普通法法系。Common-law system也称作判例法系（case law system）或英美法系（AngloAmerican legal system），是以英国普通法为基础发展起来的法律制度，主要通行于美国和英联邦国家。

(3) civil law system：大陆法系、民法法系。civil law system也称作大陆法系（continental legal system）或罗马法系（Romanlaw system）。大陆法系或民法法系又分为法国、德国两个支系，法国、比利时、荷兰、意大利、西班牙和拉丁美洲各国属于前者；而德国、奥地利、瑞士则属于后者。

(4) 例如日本，日本法在近代属大陆法系，第二次世界大战后受到美国法很大的影响。

(5) jurisdiction：该术语具有“管辖区域、范围”，或者“司法管辖权”的意思，在此处是指管辖的区域、范围。

(6) the Exchequer：（英）理财法院；财政诉讼法院。原为征服者威廉时期王廷（aula regia）的一个部门，属存卷法院（court of record）。其职责是处理有关应向国王政府缴付款项的纠纷。当时这一部门兼理财政及司法。到13世纪末其司法的职责逐渐脱离行政职责，形成理财法院（the Court of Exchequer）。The former government office responsible for collecting revenue and making payments on behalf of the sovereign, auditing official accounts, and trying legal cases relating to revenue.

(7) the King's Bench：王座法院。The King's Bench(or, during the reign of a female monarch, the Queen's Bench) is the superior court in a number of jurisdictions within some of the Commonwealth realms. The original Queen's Bench, founded in 1215 in the United Kingdom, is one of the ancient courts of England, and is now a division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales.

(8) Common Pleas：皇家民事法院；普通民事诉讼法院。The Common Pleas made a distinction between common and special bail, allowing the former, in cases where the defendant voluntarily appeared to the process, or where the damage expressed in it appeared to be but of a trifling amount, and requiring the latter only, when the plaintiff's demand or the damage he had sustained appeared to be something considerable.

(9) manorial courts：（英格兰古法）领地法院，设在领地内的法院，审理租户诉讼案件。

(10) baronial courts：男爵法院，亦作court baron，是领地法院的一种。Court baron is an English manorial court dating from the Middle Ages.

(11) admiral's(maritime) courts：海事法院。Historically, there were a number of admiralty courts. From about 1360 the sea coast of England and Wales was divided into 19 districts, and for each there was a Vice Admiral of the Coast, representing the Lord High Admiral. From 1360 to 1875 a Judge served as the “Lieutenant, Official Principal and Commissary General and Special of the High Court of Admiralty, and President and Judge of the High Court of Admiralty”. In 1887 the High Court of Admiralty was absorbed into the new Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court. No judges are now appointed for the local courts, and the judicial functions of the Lord High Admiral have been passed to the Queen's Bench Division of the High Court, where they continue to be exercised by the Admiralty Judge and other Commercial Court judges authorized to sit in Admiralty cases.

(12) guild：同业公会，行会，基尔特。一种为公共目的、相互援助而自愿组建的协会、行会或同业公会。A group of persons sharing a common vocation who unite to regulate the affairs of their trade in order to protect and promote their common vocation; specif., a voluntary society or fraternity of persons employed in the same trade or craft, formed for the mutual benefit and protection of its members, who pay a fee(a geld or gild) for its general expenses.

(13) forest courts：王室猎场法院。为管理王国各地的王室猎场而设立的法院，以对破坏王室猎物、伤害猎场中的鹿以及其他猎物的行为予以处罚。王室猎场法院于1688年废止。William the Conqueror, a great lover of hunting, established the system of forest law. This operated outside of the common law, and served to protect game animals and their forest habitat from destruction.

(14) law report：判例汇编。汇编人（reporter）对级别较高的法院审理中的司法程序、案件事实陈述、当事人辩论以及法院判决及理由等予以记录之出版物。

(15) findings of law：对适用法律的裁决。指对某种事件的法律后果的裁决。

(16) determinations of fact：对争议事实的裁决。

(17) labor-management relations：劳资关系。

(18) constitutional law：宪法。在此处“constitutional law”指作为一个部门法的宪法；而constitution指特定的成文法形式的宪法。宪法可以分为成文宪法和不成文宪法。成文宪法形成统一的书面法律文件，又称刚性宪法（rigid constitution），其制定和修改均须通过特别程序，不能以一般立法方式变更，如美国宪法，但也得以法院的解释、惯例等为补充。不成文宪法散见于各个制定法、法院的解释、习俗和惯例之中，又称柔性宪法（flexible constitution），如英国宪法。柔性宪法无单独宪法文本，其修订和一般法律的修订程序相同。

(19) statute：制定法。A law passed by a legislature.

(20) Roman Emperor Justinian Ⅰ：罗马皇帝优士丁尼一世（Justinian Ⅰ）。

(21) Corpus Juris Civilis：《优士丁尼民法大全》或《国法大全》，或译为《罗马法大全》。Corpus Juris Civilis包括四部分，即：Justinian Code《优士丁尼法典》，Institutes《法学阶梯》，The Digest《学说汇纂》、New Law《新律》。”

(22) 需要注意的是，“civil law”（民法）这个术语既可指“大陆法”，也可指与大陆法上的“公法”相对的“私法”。注意英美法中的“civil law”与大陆法上“民法”这个词并不是同一概念。“Civil law”这个词在我国法律系乃至于整个民法法系中主要是指与刑法（criminal law）或商法（commercial law）相对的作为一个独立部门的民法；而在普通法系中，这样的部门法是不存在的。在普通法系中提到“civil law”，通常是指与“common law”相对的“大陆法”。

(23) French Civil Code(or Napoleonic Code)：《法国民法典》，或称为《拿破仑法典》。《拿破仑法典》是一个非正式的用语，指在拿破仑时代由拿破仑提议通过的诸法典的总称，法语为Code Napoleon。它包括1804年的《民法典》（Code Civil）、1806年的《民事诉讼法典》（Code de Procedure civile）、1807年的《商法典》（Code de Commerce）、1810年的《刑法典》（Code Penal），和1811年的《刑事诉讼法典》（Code d'instruction criminelle）。不过，有时其中1804年的《民法典》也单独称为“拿破仑法典”（Napoleonic Code）。

(24) Holy Roman Empire：神圣罗马帝国（公元962至1806年），其拉丁文为Sacrum Romanorum Imperium nationis Germanicae，在西欧和中欧的封建帝国。早期为统一的国家，中世纪后演变为一些承认皇帝最高权威的公国、侯国、伯国、宗教贵族领地和自由市的政治联合体。

(25) equity：此处指“衡平法”。本文对其进行了较为详细地介绍。

(26) Malta：马耳他，地中海岛国。

(27) Norman Conquest：诺曼征服，指1066年以诺曼底公爵威廉（William）（约1028—1087年）对英格兰的征服。

(28) Magna Carta：《大宪章》。英国是一个没有成文宪法的国家，其宪法是由一系列的文件和法案组成，其中具有奠基意义的一份，就是在1215年6月15日，由英国国王与贵族们签订的《大宪章》。这张书写在羊皮纸卷上的文件日后成为了英国君主立宪制的法律基石。

(29) autocratic：专制的，独裁的。

(30) Court of Common Pleas：皇家民事法院；普通民事诉讼法院。1875年之前，皇家民事法院是英格兰最重要的三个中央法院之一。1875年之后，它被并入新的高等法院（High Court of Justice）。

(31) override：撤销，使无效。

(32) Lord Chancellor：大法官，御前大臣。自公元605年起，英国就设立了大法官一职，其历史比首相（Premier）职位更悠久，具有十分特殊和显要的地位。大法官同时还兼任上议院（The House of Lords）的议长、内阁法律大臣（Lord Chancellor in Cabinet），负责任命上诉法院（The Supreme Court of Appeals）和高等法院（The High Court of Justice）的首席法官和全国的高级法官，管理全国的法院系统。2003年6月12日，英国首相布莱尔（Tony Blair）对内阁进行了重大改组，撤销了大法官的建制。大法官欧文勋爵（Derry Irvine）是英国最后一任大法官。

(33) Thomas More：托马斯·莫尔（1478—1535），曾当过律师、国会议员、财政副大臣、国会下院议长、大法官。1535年因反对亨利八世兼任教会首脑而被处死。1886年，在莫尔去世三百多年后，被罗马天主教会的教皇庇护十一世册封为圣人，以其名著《乌托邦》而名垂史册。Thomas More also known by Catholics as Saint Thomas More, was an English lawyer, social philosopher, author, statesman and noted Renaissance humanist.

(34) Court of Chancery：衡平法院，御前大臣法院。