稻草人谬误 strawman
Misrepresenting someone’s argument to make it easier to attack.
By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just completely fabricating someone's argument, it's much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of dishonesty serves to undermine rational debate.
After Will said that we should put more money into health and education, Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending.
歪曲别人的观点，然后轻松驳倒立起来的“稻草人”。
通过歪曲，夸大，或者完全捏造对方的观点，让自己的观点看起来很合理，这种欺骗的手段会毁掉理性辩论。
卅猫说政府应该在健康和教育上投入更多。w子回应道：“你这么不爱国，居然想减少国防开支来让国家处于危险中。”
基本归因错误 false cause
Presuming that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one is the cause of the other.
Many people confuse correlation (things happening together or in sequence) for causation (that one thing actually causes the other to happen). Sometimes correlation is coincidental, or it may be attributable to a common cause.
Pointing to a fancy chart, Roger shows how temperatures have been rising over the past few centuries, whilst at the same time the numbers of pirates have been decreasing; thus pirates cool the world and global warming is a hoax.
通过两者可能的关联性就推断一件事是另外一件事的起因。
许多人弄不清相关性（事情同时或依次发生）因果（一件事确实导致了另外的事）。有时可能完全是巧合，或者两者是一个原因导致的。
卅猫指出温度在这几个世纪不断上升，与此同时海盗的数量在减少。由此得出海盗能降低全球温度，进而认为全球变暖就是一个骗局。
滑坡谬误 slippery slope
Asserting that if we allow A to happen, then Z will consequently happen too, therefore A should not happen.
The problem with this reasoning is that it avoids engaging with the issue at hand, and instead shifts attention to baseless extreme hypotheticals. The merits of the original argument are then tainted by unsubstantiated conjecture.
Colin Closet asserts that if we allow same-sex couples to marry, then the next thing we know we’ll be allowing people to marry their parents, their cars and even monkeys.
声张如果A发生了，那么Z一定会发生，所以A不会发生。
这个论证的问题在于，它跳过了对A的讨论，而是把注意力转移到胡诌出来的极端情况Z。这使得争论由原来对A的讨论转移到对一个未证实的Z。
w子声称如果允许同性恋之间结婚，接着人们就会同意和父母结婚，和卡车结婚，和猴子结婚。
特例谬误 special pleading
Moving the goalposts or making up exceptions when a claim is shown to be false.
Humans are funny creatures and have a foolish aversion to being wrong. Rather than appreciate the benefits of being able to change one’s mind through better understanding, many will invent ways to cling to old beliefs.
Edward Johns claimed to be psychic, but when his ‘abilities’ were tested under proper scientific conditions, they magically disappeared. Edward explained this saying that one had to have faith in his abilities for them to work.
当你的断言被证明是错误的时候，试图改变规则或者举特例。
人类总是讨厌发现自己是错的，而不是通过更多的理解来改变自己的观点。许多人会以各种方式固守自己的信仰。
卅猫说自己会膜法，但是他的“能力”在科学环境下测试却消失了。卅猫生气地说：“只有有人信我的时候我才能发挥出膜法！”
赌徒谬误 the gamble’s fallacy
Believing that ‘runs’ occur to statistically independent phenomena such as roulette wheel spins.
This commonly believed fallacy can be said to have helped create a city in the desert of Nevada USA. Though the overall odds of a ‘big run’ happening may be low, each spin of the wheel is itself entirely independent from the last.
Red had come up six times in a row on the roulette wheel, so Greg knew that it was close to certain that black would be next up. Sufering an economic form of natural selection with this thinking, he soon lost all of his savings.
相信统计学上的独立事件是相关的，比如轮盘赌。
这个常见谬误甚至可以说在美国达华州建立了一座城市。尽管总体来说“大放送”的总体赔率很低，不过轮盘每一次转动都和上一次完全独立。
轮盘已经六次指向红色，w子想着这次一定是黑色了。按照这种想法，w子很快输掉了所有积蓄。
非黑即白 balck-or-white
Where two alternative states are presented as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist.
Also known as the false dilemma, this insidious tactic has the appearance of forming a logical argument, but under closer scrutiny it becomes evident that there are more possibilities than the either/or choice that is presented.
Whilst rallying support for his plan to fundamentally undermine citizens’ rights, the Supreme Leader told the people they were either on his side, or on the side of the enemy.
你只一定要在两种选择中二选一，忽略了更多可能性的存在。
在这个错误中，很容易被包装成逻辑论证。但是只要靠近细看，就会明显发现有更多可能。
卅猫大王推出了一项可能损害公民权益的政策，然后她说：“要么支持我，要么去投靠敌人。”
人身攻击 ad hominem
Attacking your opponent’s character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument.
Ad hominem attacks can take the form of overtly attacking somebody, or casting doubt on their character. The result of an ad hom attack can be to undermine someone without actually engaging with the substance of their argument.
After Sally presents an eloquent and compelling case for a more equitable taxation system, Sam asks the audience whether we should believe anything from a woman who isn’t married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.
攻击对手的性格或品质企图削弱他的论点。
人身攻击可能会是直接公开攻击他人，也可以是使人怀疑对方的品质。结果只会是伤害他人而不是正面推翻他的结论。
W子提出了一个有理有据的更加公平的税制，卅猫却问我们是否应该相信一个没结婚，被逮捕过，闻起来有点怪的女人——也就是w子——么。
问题诱导 loaded question
Asking a question that has an assumption built into it so that it can’t be answered without appearing guilty.
Loaded question fallacies are particularly efective at derailing rational debates because of their inflammatory nature - the recipient of the loaded question is compelled to defend themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.
Grace and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any problems with a fungal infection.
在问题中就夹杂着臆断，导致根本无法正确回答。
因为其煽动性，诱导性的提问十分容易使理性讨论脱节——诱导性问题的对象不得不为此辩护，还有可能使其慌乱或是处于下风。
w子和卅猫都喜欢小菁。一天，w子当着小菁面询问卅猫是否有皮肤病。
乐队彩车 bandwagon
Appealing to popularity or the fact that many people do something as an attempted form of validation.
The flaw in this argument is that the popularity of an idea has absolutely no bearing on its validity. If it did, then the Earth would have made itself flat for most of history to accommodate this popular belief.
Shamus pointed a drunken finger at Sean and asked him to explain how so many people could believe in leprechauns if they’re only a silly old superstition. Sean, however, had had a few too many Guinness himself and fell of his chair.
依靠名望或者大流来判断事物正确与否。
这种情形的错误在于观点的流行程度和它的正确性完全没有关系。如果有的话，地球在人们相信地平论的时候就得把自己压扁了。
喝多了的卅猫举起醉醺醺的手指着w子，问道如果小妖精是一个老掉牙的迷信，为什么还有那么多人相信。w子也喝太多，从椅子上摔了下来。
窃取论点 begging the question
A circular argument in which the conclusion is included in the premise.
This logically incoherent argument often arises in situations where people have an assumption that is very ingrained, and therefore taken in their minds as a given. Circular reasoning is bad mostly because it’s not very good.
The word of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect. We know this because it says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbo’s Best and Most Truest Things that are Definitely True and Should Not Ever Be Questioned.
一个循环论证是指其预设已经包括了结论。
这种逻辑错误经常在人们根深蒂固想当然时出现。循环论证一般是十分糟糕的。
大卓尔博的话是完美无瑕的。卅猫这么认为是因为大卓尔博在他最棒最可靠的书中写道最好最正确的事不应该被怀疑。
诉诸权威 appeal to authority
Saying that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.
It’s important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts, or scientific consensus. Appeals to authority are not valid arguments, but nor is it reasonable to disregard the claims of experts who have a demonstrated depth of knowledge unless one has a similar level of understanding.
Not able to defend his position that evolution ‘isn’t true’ Bob says that he knows a scientist who also questions evolution (and presumably isn’t herself a primate).
叫嚣着既然权威这么说了，那么一定是正确的。
值得注意的是这条谬误不是指要批判专家或者一些科学共识。诉诸权威并不完全正确，但是也不能漠视专家的深度学识，除非有和他知识水平相近的。
无法反驳进化论，w子便搪塞道自己认识一个科学家也是反对进化论的。
诉诸自然 appeal to nature
Making the argument that because something is ‘natural’ it is therefore valid, justified, inevitable, good, or ideal.
Many ‘natural’ things are also considered ‘good’, and this can bias our thinking; but naturalness itself doesn’t make something good or bad. For instance murder could be seen as very natural, but that doesn’t mean it’s justifiable.
The medicine man rolled into town on his bandwagon ofering various natural remedies, such as very special plain water. He said that it was only natural that people should be wary of ‘artificial’ medicines like antibiotics.
通过一件事是“自然的”得出它是有效的，合理的，必然的，有益的或是最棒的。
很多“自然的”被认为同等于“好的”，但这只是我们的偏见，自然本身从来不会造出好的或者坏的。比如杀人是很自然的，但他并不是无可非议的。
一个药贩子在城镇带来了自然疗法的潮流，像是特制白开水之类。他宣扬自然才是最好的，要小心抗生素这种人造的药物。
合成谬误 composition/division
Assuming that what’s true about one part of something has to be applied to all, or other, parts of it.
Often when something is true for the part it does also apply to the whole, but because this isn’t always the case it can’t be presumed to be true. We must show evidence for why a consistency will exist.
Daniel was a precocious child and had a liking for logic. He reasoned that atoms are invisible, and that he was made of atoms and therefore invisible too.Unfortunately, despite his thinky skills, he lost the game of hide and go seek.
认为对局部适用的结论对整体或是其他部分同样适用。
一般情况下局部适用的整体很可能一样适用，但是这并不总是对的。我们必须证明它们的一致性。
w子是个喜欢自己思考的早熟孩子。他了解到原子是看不见的，而自己又是由原子构成的，由此推演自己是透明的。不幸的是，他因此输掉了躲猫猫游戏。
轶事谬误 false cause
Using personal experience or an isolated example instead of a valid argument, especially to dismiss statistics.
It’s often much easier for people to believe someone’s testimony as opposed to understanding variation across a continuum. Scientific and statistical measures are almost always more accurate than individual perceptions and experiences.
Jason said that that was all cool and everything, but his grandfather smoked, like, 30 cigarettes a day and lived until 97 - so don’t believe everything you read about meta analyses of sound studies showing proven causal relationships.
使用个人经验或是奇闻而不是用统计数据来证明自己的观点。
相信某个人的片面之词比理解事物的连续变化要容易得多。科学和统计的测量往往比个人经验或是感觉要准确得多。
卅猫说自己的外公每天抽30根烟也活到了97岁，所以不要相信任何书上或是研究出的玩意。
诉诸情感 appeal to emotion
Manipulating an emotional response in place of a valid or compelling argument.
Appeals to emotion include appeals to fear, envy, hatred, pity, guilt, and more. Though a valid, and reasoned, argument may sometimes have an emotional aspect, one must be careful that emotion doesn’t obscure or replace reason.
Luke didn’t want to eat his sheep’s brains with chopped liver and brussels sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third world country who weren’t fortunate enough to have any food at all.
试图操纵情感而不是通过诉说合理的观点。
诉诸情感如害怕，嫉妒，仇恨，同情，罪恶感等等。尽管一个合乎情理的推理也会造成情感波动，不过含糊不清的情感并不能归因。
w子不想吃羊脑和剁碎的甘蓝，卅猫教育他说世界上还有许多吃不上饭的孩子。
诉诸伪善 tu quoque
Avoiding having to engage with criticism by turning it back on the accuser - answering criticism with criticism.
Literally translating as ‘you too’ this fallacy is commonly employed as an efective red herring because it takes the heat of the accused having to defend themselves and shifts the focus back onto the accuser themselves.
Nicole identified that Hannah had committed a logical fallacy, but instead of addressing the substance of her claim, Hannah accused Nicole of committing a fallacy earlier on in the conversation.
将批判转移给对方以回避对批判的讨论——以批评回应批评。
这个谬误字面翻译的话就是“你也一样”，因为它将注意力转移到批评者身上以至于他们不得不自卫。
w子指出卅猫犯了一个逻辑谬误，卅猫反击道w子在之前的讨论中也犯了逻辑谬误。
举证责任 burden of proof
Saying that the burden of proof lies not with the person making the claim, but with someone else to disprove.
The burden of proof lies with someone who is making a claim, and is not upon anyone else to disprove. The inability, or disinclination, to disprove a claim does not make it valid (however we must always go by the best available evidence).
Bertrand declares that a teapot is, at this very moment, in orbit around the Sun between the Earth and Mars, and that because no one can prove him wrong his claim is therefore a valid one.
认为举证的责任不在立论的人而是在质疑的人身上。
谁立论，谁举证，而不是质疑的人举证。对断言的没有支撑的质疑不会使断言有效（不管如何我们最好拿出证据来反驳）。
卅猫说此刻一个茶壶在地球和火星间绕太阳旋转，因为没人能证明他说的是错的，所以他就是对的。
没有苏格兰人 no ture scotsman
Making what could be called an appeal to purity as a way to dismiss relevant criticisms or flaws of an argument.
This fallacy is often employed as a measure of last resort when a point has been lost. Seeing that a criticism is valid, yet not wanting to admit it, new criteria are invoked to dissociate oneself or one’s argument.
Angus declares that Scotsmen do not put sugar on their porridge, to which Lachlan points out that he is a Scotsman and puts sugar on his porridge. Furious, like a true Scot, Angus yells that no true Scotsman sugars his porridge.
诉诸纯度来应对批评或是填补漏洞。
这个谬误通常是在观点已经完全被推翻的最后手段。在一个批评十分有效是，援引一个新的标准来切割话题。
卅猫说没有苏格兰的家伙在稀饭里面放糖。然而w子就是苏格兰人，他说自己就是甜党。卅猫生气了，大声嗷呜：真正的纯苏格兰人是不放糖的。
德州神枪手谬误 the texas sharpshooter
Cherry-picking data clusters to suit an argument, or finding a pattern to fit a presumption.
This ‘false cause’ fallacy is coined after a marksman shooting at barns and then painting a bullseye target around the spot where the most bullet holes appear. Clusters naturally appear by chance, and don’t necessarily indicate causation.
The makers of Sugarette Candy Drinks point to research showing that of the five countries where Sugarette drinks sell the most units, three of them are in the top ten healthiest countries on Earth, therefore Sugarette drinks are healthy
优选适合论点的材料，或是找到适合推测的样本。
这种“假性因果”名称源于一个神枪手先打枪后画靶的故事。许多事物独立发生，并不一定是有关联性。
w子推销SCD饮料，研究发现在SCD销量最高的五个国家中，三个在地球最健康的十个国家里面，因此w子宣称SCD饮料有益健康。
谬误谬误 the fallacy fallacy
Presuming a claim to be necessarily wrong because a fallacy has been committed.
It is entirely possibly to make a claim that is false yet argue with logical coherency for that claim, just as is possible to make a claim that is true and justify it with various fallacies and poor arguments.
Recognising that Amanda had committed a fallacy in arguing that we should eat healthy food because a nutritionist said it was popular, Alyse said we should therefore eat bacon double cheeseburgers every day.
因为论证里有谬误，就断定观点一定错误。
一个错误的结论完全有可能因为强辩而获胜，就像一个正确的结论可能会使用穷乏的论据。
w子说一个营养学家在电视上宣扬健康饮食这么流行一定是正确的，所以他说健康饮食就是扯淡。于是她躬身亲行，每顿都吃双层干酪汉堡包。
个人怀疑 personnal incredulity
Saying that because one finds something difcult to understand, it’s therefore not true.
Subjects such as biological evolution via the process of natural selection require a good amount of understanding before one is able to properly grasp them; this fallacy is usually used in place of that understanding.
Kirk drew a picture of a fish and a human and with efusive disdain asked Richard if he really thought we were stupid enough to believe that a fish somehow turned into a human through just, like, random things happening over time.
因为自己不能理解一个观点，就说它是不正确的。
一些话题入自然选择而来的生物进化，需要一定基础知识和理解力。这种谬误一般出现在这种某些人因为自己水平不够而无法理解的情况。
卅猫画了一个半人半鱼的怪物，并鄙夷的责问w子说w子居然蠢到会相信鱼可以进化成人，如果是的，怎么没出现这种怪物啊。
歧义谬误 ambiguity
Using double meanings or ambiguities of language to mislead or misrepresent the truth.
Politicians are often guilty of using ambiguity to mislead and will later point to how they were technically not outright lying if they come under scrutiny. It’s a particularly tricky and premeditated fallacy to commit.
When the judge asked the defendant why he hadn't paid his parking fines, he said that he shouldn't have to pay them because the sign said 'Fine for parking here' and so he naturally presumed that it would be fine to park there.
使用含义模糊的话来弯曲或是颠倒事实。
政客经常含糊其辞来歪曲事实，之后如果被质疑，他们就会说是技术上的失误。这是一种特别狡猾的谬误。
卅猫：毛主席和小明同时掉落水中，先救哪一个？w子：救毛主席啊！
基因谬误 genetic
Judging something good or bad on the basis of where it comes from, or from whom it comes.
To appeal to prejudices surrounding something’s origin is another red herring fallacy. This fallacy has the same function as an ad hominem, but applies instead to perceptions surrounding something’s source or context.
Accused on the 6 o’clock news of corruption and taking bribes, the senator said that we should all be very wary of the things we hear in the media, because we all know how very unreliable the media can be.
以出身来评判事物好坏。
执着于攻击出身是另外一种红鲱鱼谬误，同样也是一种人身攻击。
为应对BBC六点新闻指控其腐败受贿，参议院称我们都应该谨慎对待此事，因为媒体闹大新闻不是一天两天了。
绝对中立 middle ground
Saying that a compromise, or middle point, between two extremes must be the truth.
Much of the time the truth does indeed lie between two extreme points, but this can bias our thinking: sometimes a thing is simply untrue and a compromise of it is also untrue. Half way between truth and a lie, is still a lie.
Holly said that vaccinations caused autism in children, but her scientifically well-read friend Caleb said that this claim had been debunked and proven false. Their friend Alice ofered a compromise that vaccinations cause some autism.
认为妥协或是折中而不是两个极端就一定是正确的。
尽管大部分时候真相的确在两个极端之间，但是这可能会让我们产生偏见：一个极端是错误，那么另一个极端也是错误。正确与错误之间仍然是错误。
w子说牛痘疫苗会引起自闭症，他的朋友卅猫却从文献中得出这个观点完全是无稽之谈。小菁折中认为一部分疫苗会引起自闭，一部分不会引起。
虽然以上24条涵盖了几乎所有谬误，但在键盘撕逼的时候，往往大家都会这么想：真理在我手，谬误你才有。
以上英文文本来自yourlogicalfallacyis.com。
