Academic WritingSeven features of academic writing

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Academic writing is arguably the most important skill in academic contexts, since writing is the main method of academic communication. It is also the most difficult skill for most students to master. This page considers what academic writing is, looking in detail at the main features of academic writing, as well as suggesting ways to develop academic writing. There is a checklist at the end for you to check your understanding.

What is academic writing?

Academic writing is writing which communicates ideas, information and research to the wider academic community. 

It can be divided into two types: student academic writing, which is used as a form of assessment at university, as well as at schools as preparation for university study; and expert academic writing, which is writing that is intended for publication in an academic journal or book. Both types of academic writing (student and expert) are expected to adhere to the same standards, which can be difficult for students to master. 

The characteristics of academic writing which together distinguish it from other forms of writing are that it is:

• structured;

• evidenced;

• critical;

• balanced;

• precise;

• objective;

• formal.

Features of academic writing

Check out the features of academic writing infographic »

Structured

Academic writing should have a clear structure. The structure will often derive from the genre of writing. For example, a report will have an introduction (including the aim or aims), a method section, a discussion section and so on, while an essay will have an introduction (including a thesis statement), clear body paragraphs with topic sentences, and a conclusion. The writing should be coherent, with logical progression throughout, and cohesive, with the different parts of the writing clearly connected. Careful planning before writing is essential to ensure that the final product will be well structured, with a clear focus and logical progression of ideas.

Evidenced

Opinions and arguments in academic writing should be supported by evidence. Often the writing will be based on information from experts in the field, and as such, it will be important to reference the information appropriately, for example via the use of in-text citations and a reference section.

Critical

Academic writing does more than just describe. As an academic writer, you should not simply accept everything you read as fact. You need to analyse and evaluate the information you are writing about, in other words make judgements about it, before you decide whether and how to integrate it into your own writing. This is known as critical writing. Critical writing requires a great deal of research in order for the writer to develop a deep enough understanding of the topic to be truly critical about it.

Balanced

Academic writing should be balanced. This means giving consideration to all sides of the issue and avoiding bias. As noted above, all research, evidence and arguments can be challenged, and it is important for the academic writer to show their stance on a particular topic, in other words how strong their claims are. This can be done using hedges, for example phases such as the evidence suggests... or this could be caused by..., or boosters, that is, phrases such as clearly or the research indicates.

Precise

Academic writing should use clear and precise language to ensure the reader understands the meaning. This includes the use of technical (i.e. subject-specific) vocabulary, which should be used when it conveys the meaning more precisely than a similar non-technical term. Sometimes such technical vocabulary may need defining, though only if the term is not commonly used by others in the same discipline and will therefore not be readily understood by the reader.

Objective

Academic writing is objective. In other words, the emphasis is placed on the arguments and information, rather than on the writer. As a result, academic writing tends to use nouns and noun phrases more than verbs and adverbs. It also tends to use more passive structures, rather than active voice, for example The water was heated rather than I heated the water.

Formal

Finally, academic writing is more formal than everyday writing. It tends to use longer words and more complex sentences, while avoiding contractions and colloquial or informal words or expressions that might be common in spoken English. There are words and collocations which are used in academic writing more frequently than in non-academic writing, and researchers have developed lists of these words and phrases to help students of academic English, such as the Academic Word List, the Academic Vocabulary List, and the Academic Collocation List.

Developing your academic writing

Given the relatively specialist nature of academic writing, it can seem daunting when you first begin. You can develop your academic writing by paying attention to feedback from tutors or peers and seeking specific areas to improve. Another way to develop your academic writing is to read more. By reading academic journals or texts, you can develop a better understanding of the features that make academic writing different from other forms of writing.

References

Alexander, O., Argent, S. and Spencer, J. (2008) EAP Essentials: A teacher's guide to principles and practice. Reading: Garnet Publishing Ltd.

Cardiff Metropolitan University (n.d.) Academic Writing: Principles and Practice. Available at: https://study.cardiffmet.ac.uk/AcSkills/Documents/Guides/AS_Guide_Academic_Writing.pdf (Access date: 4/2/21).

Gillett, A. (n.d.) Features of academic writing. Available at: http://www.uefap.com/writing/feature/featfram.htm (Access date: 4/2/21).

Staffordshire University (2020) Academic writing. https://libguides.staffs.ac.uk/ld.php?content_id=33103104 (Access date: 4/2/21).

Staffordshire University (2021) Academic writing. https://libguides.staffs.ac.uk/academic_writing/explained (Access date: 4/2/21).

University of Leeds (2021) Academic writing. https://library.leeds.ac.uk/info/14011/writing/106/academic_writing (Access date: 4/2/21).

Quiz

Academic StyleHow to write in the right style

This page gives information on academic writing style in English. It includes a list of 10 rules for academic style. The page also includes a style checklist for your writing, as well as some exercises to help you practice this area.

What is academic style in English?

For another look at the same content, check out YouTube or Youku, or the infographic.

Academic English, like any writing, has its own conventions or 'style'. It is a formal, written style, which means that it has aspects which make it different from 'spoken' academic English, and at the same time, being 'formal', it is quite different from ordinary writing which you might use in letters, emails, or stories.

This section considers 10 'rules' for good academic writing in English. Although rules are never a good idea for any form of study (because there are always exceptions), they are usually a good place to begin. These rules are concerned with the use of:

• formality (rules 1-5);

• objectivity (rule 6);

• precision (rules 7-8);

• tentative language (rule 9);

• explicit links (rule 10).

Rule 1

Use formal vocabulary, such as words from the academic wordlist (AWL), and words for numbers up to ten. Avoid less formal or idiomatic vocabulary.

       ✓ Many fathers nowadays...

       ✗ Many dads these days...

       ✓ Major urban centres, such as London and Beijing...

       ✗ Major urban centres, like London and Beijing...

       ✓ There are a significant number of people who believe...

       ✗ There are lots of people who believe...

       ✓ There are three main reasons for this.

       ✗ There are 3 main reasons for this.

Rule 2

Use formal verbs instead of two-word verbs.

       ✓ increase, decrease, discuss, improve, deteriorate, continue, raise

       ✗ go up, go down, talk about, get better, get worse, go on, bring up

Rule 3

Use the full form of verbs, not contractions.

       ✓ do not, cannot, will not, did not

       ✗ don't, can't, won't, didn't

Rule 4

Use formal grammar structures, such as nominalisation (noun phrases) and clauses, rather than too many simple sentences.

       ✓ The increasing pollution of the environment is a global concern.

       ✗ The environment is increasingly polluted. This is a global concern.

       ✓ Note-taking, which is an important skill for EAP students, is difficult to master.

       ✗ Note-taking is an important skill for EAP students. It is difficult to master.

Rule 5

Use statements. Avoid rhetorical questions, which are less formal (though these are common in spoken academic English, i.e. lectures and presentations).

       ✓ There were four main reasons for the decline.

       ✗ What were the reasons for the decline?

       ✓ Written English is different from spoken English.

       ✗ How are written and spoken English different?

Rule 6

Use impersonal language, such as 'There is...', 'It is...', or passive voice. Avoid personal pronouns (I, we, you, etc.) and adverbs which show your feeling (e.g. luckily, remarkably, amazingly).

       ✓There are three main problems.

       ✗I can think of three main problems.

       ✓ In the experiment, the water was heated...

       ✗ In the experiment, I heated the water...

        ✓ There were very few errors in the experiment.

        ✗ Amazingly there were very few errors in the experiment.

Rule 7

Be as precise as possible. Use exact figures or values wherever possible, rather than 'about' or 'several'. Use words such as 'factor', 'issue', 'topic', 'aspect' instead of vague words such as 'thing'.

       ✓ There are three main reasons for this.

       ✗ There are several reasons for this.

       ✓ The turning point was in the late 1980s.

       ✗ The turning point was about 30 years ago.

       ✓ There were three factors which led to this result.

       ✗ There were three things which led to this result.

Rule 8

Be sure to cite your sources. Avoid making vague claims.

       ✓ Russell (2001) states that over 50% of the population are unaware of the problem.

       ✗ Everybody knows that most people are unaware of the problem.

       ✗ Most people are unaware of the problem.

Rule 9

Use hedging (i.e. tentative language), such as 'possibly', 'probably', 'may', 'might', 'appears to', and 'seems to' to qualify statements. Avoid absolute statements and words such as 'always'.

       ✓ Education may reduce crime.

       ✓ It appears that education reduces crime.

       ✗ Education reduces crime.

       ✓ This is possibly caused by the effects of global warming.

       ✓ This may be caused by the effects of global warming.

       ✗ This is caused by the effects of global warming.

       ✓ Chinese students often make mistakes with tenses.

       ✗ Chinese students always make mistakes with tenses.

Rule 10

Use appropriate transition signals to make explicit (i.e. clear) links between ideas and to introduce new sections of an essay. Avoid numbering or bullet points (except in certain reports), and basic transitions to begin sentences (e.g. 'And', 'But', 'So'). Also be careful not to use too many transitions (not at the beginning of every sentence!).

       ✓ Turning to the question of inflation...

       ✗ 2. Inflation.

       ✓ In addition, inflation is an important factor.

       ✗ And inflation is an important factor.

Checklist

Below is a checklist for academic style. Use it to check your own writing, or get a peer (another student) to help you.

How to write more formally in Academic Writing

Practice:

Correct the following part taken from a piece of academic writing.

Writing objectively: how to create an objective tone in academic English writing

Introduction to Academic Writing 

1. Purposes of Academic Writing 

1) To advance knowledge in a research field with evidence 

2) To explain new ideas and make them accessible to others 

3) To solve practical problems 

2. Genres of Academic Writing 

Research papers Research reports 

Theses/dissertations Short communications 

Review articles Oral presentations/ posters 

3. Features of Academic Writing 

1) Formality: Academic writing is formal. 

2) Objectivity: Academic writing sets a high value on objectivity.3) Accuracy: Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately.4) Complexity: Academic writing involves a highly specialized vocabulary and rigorous sentence structures 

5) Hedging: An important feature of academic writing is the use of 

cautious language.References 

1. Winkler, Anthony and Jo Ray Metherell. Writing the Research Paper: 

A Handbook. Beijing: Peking University Press, 2017. 

2. 胡庚申.论文写作与国际发表.北京：外语教学与研究出版社, 2016. 

3. 胡友珍.英语学术论文写作教程.北京：中国农业大学出版社，2013. 

4. 刘振聪，修月祯.英语学术论文写作.北京：中国人民大学出版社， 

2009. 

5. 张俊东，杨亲正，国防.SCI 论文写作和发表：You Can Do It.北京： 

化学工业出版社，2016。