Chapter 7    Changes in Word Meaning

    The vocabulary is the most unstable element of a language as it is undergoing constant changes both in the sign-shapes and sign contents. Comparatively, the latter is even more unstable than the former. Of course, some meanings remain much the same for a long period of time because the referents(所指) to which they direct us do not change. More often than not, an old form or a group of forms are pressed by polysemic extension(扩展) into new service when a new linguistic need is felt. Shakespeare is perhaps more difficult to understand than more recent writings because many of his words were used in different senses from what they have now in contemporary dictionaries. Let us examine just a few words taken from one of his well-known plays Hamlet. Rival means 'partner' as in 'The rivals of my watch, bid them make haste'; jump means 'just' as in 'Thus twice before, and jump at this dead hour'; vulgar(粗俗的，庸俗的；猥亵的) signifies 'common' as in 'as common as any the most vulgar thing to sense'; censure(指责，责备) signifies ' opinion' as in 'Take each man' s censure, but reserve thy judgment'; fond(喜爱的，爱好的)designates 'foolish' as in 'I'll wipe away all trivial fond records'; pregnant (怀孕的) designates 'meaningful' as in 'How pregnant sometimes his replies are' and so on. Examples as such are numerous.

    Changing in word meaning has never ceased since the beginning of the language and will continue in the future. Yet no one has been able to systemize(系统化) the ways in which changes occur. Empirical(实验) studies have identified a few patterns that changes follow. This chapter will discuss in some detail the major patterns, the mechanism underlying these patterns and the causes of changes.

 

7.1   Types of Change

It has been observed by linguists and semanticists that the transformations of word-meaning follow a number of patterns, the major ones of which are: extension, narrowing, degradation(降格), elevation(升格), transference(转移), and euphemism. Of these major tendencies, extension and narrowing are by far the most common.

 

1. Extension of Meaning

    Extension of meaning, also known as generalization(普遍化), is the name given to the widening of meaning which some words undergo. It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept. A good example is the word manuscript, which now signifies 'any author' s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer or a word-processor, but its original meaning was 'handwriting' only, i. e. writing by hand. Fabulous began with the meaning of ' resembling a fable'(类似寓言的) or' based on a fable', but later came to mean ' incredible' or 'marvelous', since the incredible and marvelous are often found in fables. Barn was once 'a place for storing only barley' , but now has extended to mean a 'storeroom'. This kind of generalization is also reflected in the word picture, which originally denoted 'painting' exclusively, but now has come to include 'drawings' and even 'photographs'. More examples:

Word                  Old Meaning                 Extended Meaning

mill                   place for grinding             place where things are made

                           grain into flour

journal              daily paper                      periodical(期刊)

scene                tent(帐篷)                        a view of anything

bonfire(篝火)     fire on bones                   a fire in the open made by burning anything

butcher               one who kills goats          one who kills animals

companion          one who shares bread       a company

    A large proportion of polysemic words of modern English have their meanings extended sometime in the course of development. Some words are generalized to such an extent that they can mean almost anything. Thing, for example, which used to mean 'a public assembly'(集会) or 'a council'(议会) in Anglo-Saxon times, now can refer to any object or event. Business, concern, condition, matter, article, and circumstance have all undergone this semantic transformation, for originally each had a more specialized meaning.

    Generalization of meaning is also found in many technical terms, which as the term suggests are confined to specialized use. For instance, allergic, a medical term in the sense of 'too sensitive to medicine', which is used now for 'averse or disinclined to'(反感或讨厌). Feedback , a term in computer science, is generalized to mean 'response'.

Words commonized from proper names have experienced the same process. For example, Sandwich comes from a gambler's name to denote a kind of fast food, and now can be used as a verb meaning 'place or squeeze between' as in 'Sandwiched between this door and a window is a giant refrigerator'. A Vandal was a member of an East Germanic tribe that ravaged(蹂躏) Gaul, Spain, and North Africa and sacked(掠夺) Rome in 455 A. D. and was known for malicious(恶意的) destruction of things. Consequently, the term was used to denote a person noted for such behaviour. Now from this word are derived verb vandalize, adjectives vandalic and vandalistic, and nouns vandalization and vandalism .

 

    2. Narrowing of Meaning

    Narrowing of meaning, also called specialization, is the opposite of widening meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in present-day English. Deer is a typical example. In Shakespearean line 'rats and mice and such small deer', deer obviously designates 'animal' in general. Corn once meant 'grain' but now is used for 'maize'(玉米) only. When garage was first borrowed from French, it meant simply a ' place for storage' but now for storing cars. Barbarian was originally a vague designation for a 'foreigner of any kind', and later was specialized to mean an ' uncivilized person'. Other examples:

word           Old Meaning                      Specialized Meaning

girl            young person of either sex     female young person

liquor         liquid                                  alcoholic drink

meat           food                                   flesh of animals

disease         discomfort                        illness

poison         drink                                 poisonous drink

wife           woman                               married woman

accident       event                               unfortunate event

 

    When a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly such as the City, which means the ' business center of London'; the Peninsula (半岛), which refers to the ' Iberian Peninsula'; and the Prophet(先知), which stands for ' Mohammed'.

    For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original, usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the whole. Such adjectives have thus taken on specialized meanings, e. g.

a private = a private soldier (列兵)

a general = a general officer (将军)

an editorial = an editorial article(社论)

    The same is true of material nouns, which are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more specific sense. For example, silver is used for ' silver dollar', glass for a 'cup-like container' or a 'mirror', and iron for a 'device for smoothing clothes'.

 

3.  Elevation of Meaning

    Elevation or amelioration refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant. Take a common term nice for example. Its original meaning was 'ignorant', then changed to 'foolish' and now elevated to mean 'delightful, pleasant'. Marshal (元帅) and constable (警察) meant a 'keeper of horses', but now have risen to a 'high-ranking army officer' and 'policeman' respectively. More examples:

Word         Old Meaning         Elevated Meaning

minister       servant(佣人)        head of the governmental ministry(部长)

angel         messenger(信使)     messenger of God(天使)

knight        servant(仆人)         rank below baronet(爵士)

earl          man (男人)          count(伯爵)

governor     pilot(领航员)         head of a state(州长，总督)

fond         foolish(愚蠢)         affectionate(喜爱)

 

    4.  Degradation of Meaning

    Degradation or pejoration of meaning is the opposite of semantic elevation. It is a process whereby words of good origin or affective neutrality fall into ill reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense. Observation shows that it is much more common for word meanings to change in denotation from neutral to pejorative than it is for them to go the other way. The tendency of pejoration is found to have taken place in many words which were once names for the common people in the Middle Ages. A boor was merely a 'peasant' and has now degraded to a 'rude, ill-mannered person'. Churl used to be a 'peasant' or ' free man' has come to denote 'uncultivated or mean person'. Wench was a 'country girl' and now may have the overtone of 'prostitute'. Hussy formerly merely a 'housewife' and villain a 'person who worked in a villa' have been relegated into a 'woman of low morals' and an 'evil or wicked person or scoundrel' respectively. The words that follow have undergone the same process.

Word         Old Meaning              Degraded Meaning

silly           happy                         foolish

vulgar        ordinary, common        coarse, rude, indecent

knave         boy                            dishonest person

criticize      appraise                     find fault with (批评)

lust            pleasure                     sexual desire (肉欲)

 

    5. Transference of Meaning

    

    Some words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer, known as transference or transfer of meaning. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus(纸莎草) , which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags(破布), wood, straw and the like, but the product has retained the same name. Penknife is so named because it was formerly used to sharpen 'quill pen', but now it is doubtful whether this kind of knife has anything to do with pen at all. With the change of function, the meaning of the word has changed too. There are four types of transference.

 

    1) Associated Transfer

This is what is commonly known as figurative extension of meaning. For example, the different parts of the human body such as the lip, tongue, tooth , nose and eye are often used figuratively: the lip of a wound, the lip of a cup; the tongue of a bell, the tongues of fire; the teeth of a saw, the teeth of a comb; the nose of a plane, the nose of a ship; the eye of a needle and the eye of a target (See Semantic Motivation).

 

    2)  Transfer Between Abstract and Concrete Meanings

    The word aftermath used to refer to a 'second crop of grass after mowing'(再生草), the meaning being concrete, but has now acquired another abstract meaning 'consequence' or 'result'. Room formerly meant 'space' as in 'There is no room in the car' and ^'There is plenty of room for improvement'. Now it has developed a concrete meaning as in 'This flat has three rooms'. The opposite transfer is reflected in grasp, stage and nerve. When grasp is used in the sense 'a firm hold with the hands and arms', the meaning is obviously concrete. It can also mean 'power or ability to understand' as used in 'She seems to have a good grasp of the subject'. This is undoubtedly abstract. Stage too has both a concrete meaning a 'platform on which to perform' and an abstract meaning 'theatre, drama, or acting as a profession' as in 'Mabel retired from the stage some years ago'. The concrete and abstract meanings of nerve is manifested in:

(1)  This terrible disease causes physical atrophy(萎缩) of the optic(视觉的) nerves.  (concrete)

(2)  Nobody had the nerve to remind him that he was several hours late already. (abstract)

 

    3)  Transfer between Subjective and Objective Meanings

    Meaning can be divided into subjective meaning and objective meaning. Some words were formerly used subjectively but later shifted to an objective use, and the subjective meaning was totally lost. For example, pitiful originally meant 'full of pity', but now has changed to 'deserving pity'. If a person is full of pity, he shows pity on others, thus being subjective. A person who deserves pity is one on whom others show pity, so being objective. This kind of transfer has occurred to quite a number of adjectives. 

    Modern English curiously possesses many words which can be used both subjectively and objectively. For instance, suspicious may mean 'causing suspicion' as well as 'showing suspicion' as used in 'The story sounds suspicious', 'We are suspicious of the story'. The same is true of fearful, which can signify 'showing fear' as in 'He was fearful of the consequence' and 'causing fear' as in 'The cartoon film was full of fearful monsters'. This co-existence of the subjective and objective meanings in words can lead to ambiguity if the users are unaware of them.

 

    4) Synesthesia(通感)

    This kind of transfer takes place between words of sensation. That is, words usually associated with one sense are used to describe another sense, e. g. clear-sounding (from sight to hearing), loud colors (from hearing to sight), sweet music (from taste to hearing), warm colors (from touch to sight). Words of sensation can indicate the speaker's attitude, e.g. hot line, cold war, a warm (cold) welcome.

 

6. Euphemism

 

    In English as in any other language, there are things which are considered to be taboo and specific unpleasantnesses which relate to such things as accidents, illness, death, excretion(), and sex. People tend to avoid mentioning them directly and talk about them in a euphemistic way. They try to employ pleasant terms to express the ideas. There is a semantic change involved as the expressions used often have little to do with the referents. For example, toilet itself a euphemistic term is often substituted (替代) for by restroom , bathroom , lounge(休闲室) , John , convenience(便利设施), comforts room(休闲室) and powder room(化妆室). The idea of 'death' finds dozens of expressions: pass away, lose one^'s life, breathe one' s last(断气), go west, eternal sleep(长眠), to name just a few. Heart trouble and kidney disease are referred to as condition , and venereal disease(性病) is called social disease.

    Many previously unwelcome professions have now taken more appealing names: janitor (看门人) becomes custodian(管理员), rat-catcher becomes extermination engineer(根除工程师), gardener is replaced by landscape architect, garbage collector by sanitation engineer; undertaker(殡仪事物承办人) has changed into mortician (殡仪业者) or funeral director(丧葬承办人), and hairdresser has turned into beautician.

   It appears that among all the people of the world, among the civilized as well as the primitive, there is a feeling that the names of the gods are too holy, and the names of evil spirits too terrifying, to be spoken lightly. Therefore, they are tactically(巧妙地) avoided in a round-about way(迂回方式). Gee, gosh almighty and gosh darn are ways to say 'Jesus', 'God Almighty' and 'God damn'. In the same way, we avoid taking the name of the Devil by means of such expressions as 'the deuce', 'the dickens', and 'Old Nick'. H. L. Mencken in The American Language lists fourteen euphemisms for the word damned: all-fired , blamed, blasted , blowed , confounded , darned , dashed, cursed, cussed, danged , deuced , dinged, switched and swiggered.

    Euphemistic terms are found used in every aspect of society, for example, slum is described as 'culturally deprived environment', poor people are just 'the disadvantaged', ' the underprivileged ' and 'the low income group', firing staff referred to as 'declaring staff redundant'(多余的，冗余的), second-hand shop is known as 'budget shop' or 'economy shop' . Instances like these can multiply.

    Apart from what has been stated, strengthening and weakening of meaning are also two types of semantic change though less common. For example, gale(大风) once meant 'light wind', disgust signified 'not like' and vice(恶行；罪恶) designated just 'flaw'. The present meanings of the words are results of strengthening. On the other hand, the meanings of others are obviously weakened compared with their former meanings. Awful(可怕的), dreadful(极糟的), horrid(极讨厌的), naughty(顽皮的), terrible(骇人的) and their corresponding adverbs are overused so that the intensity has been considerably lessened(减弱).