Chapter 4 Word Formation
The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word formation. There is a variety of means being at work now. The most productive are affixation, compounding and conversion. According to Pyles and Algeo (1982), words produced through affixation constitute 30% to 40% of the total number of new words; compounding yields 28% to 30% of all the new words; conversion (转类法；转换) brings 26% of the new vocabulary into modern English. The rest of the new words come from shortening(缩略法) including clipping(截短法) and acronymy(首字母拼音法), numbering 8% to 10% , together with 1% to 5% of words born out of blending(拼缀法；混成法) and other means.
Talking about word-forming patterns means dealing with rules. But a rule of word formation usually differs from a syntactic rule (句法规则) in that it is of limited productivity. That is, not all words which are produced by applying the rule are acceptable. The acceptability is gained only when the words have gained an institutional currency(单调而重复的流通) in the language. For example, the existence of the actual English words unclean, unwise, unfair does not ensure the legitimacy(合法性) of * unexcelled. Therefore, rules only provide a constant set of models from which new words , ephemeral(（昆虫）短命的；短暂的，一时的) or permanent, are created from day to day. Rules themselves are not fixed but undergo changes to a certain extent. For instance, affixes and compounding processes may become productive at one time, e.g. de- , non- , -teria, -wise (defog(去除…上的雾水；消除…的雾), non-hero, cafeteria, weatherwise(善于预测天气的；善于预测舆论、意见、感情变化的)) or lose their productivity, e.g. the Old English -th which is found in -warmth, length , depth , width , breadth derived from adjectives warm, long, deep, wide, broad is no longer used to form new words, * coolth (Quirk, et al 1985). By word formation processes, we concentrate on productive or on marginally (边缘性地) productive rules. While applying the rules, we should remember that there are always exceptions. The discussion to follow will be based on Quirk, et al 1973 and 1985, Sinclair, et al 1991.
4.1 Affixation
Affixation (词缀法) is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to bases. This process is also known as derivation(派生法), by which new words are derived from old or base forms. The words created in this way are called derivatives(派生词). According to the positions affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two subcategories: prefixation (前缀法)and suffixation(后缀法).
1. Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to bases. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the base but only modify its meaning. For convenience of study, we shall present prefixes on a semantic basis, that is, we shall group prefixes into semantic sets, each consisting of all the major prefixes that have similar meaning and functions. At the same time, for ease of access (为便于学习), the affixes in each set are arranged in alphabetical order.
1) Negative Prefixes
a- meaning 'not, without, opposite to' as in apolitical(不关心政治的), asexual(无性生殖的), atypical(无特征性), asocial(缺乏社交性的), amoral(与道德无关的，超道德的)
dis- meaning 'not, the converse of ' as in disobey, discredit(无信用), disloyal, disorder, disuse(不被使用)
in- (il-, ir- , im-) same in meaning as for dis- as in inaudible(听不见的), injustice(不公平；不讲道义), illiterate(文盲), illegitimate (不合理的，不合逻辑的), irresistible (不可抗拒的), irresponsibility(无责任), improbable, immature(不成熟的)
non- meaning 'not', a productive affix expressing the idea that a person or thing does not have the qualities or characteristics referred to, as in non-classical(非经典的), non-smoker, non-violence, non-president(非总统的), non-virtue(非道德的)
un- same in meaning as for dis-, a very productive affix as in undemocratic, unwillingly, unbuilt(未兴建的，无建筑物的), unsmiling(不笑的)
Of this group, un- is by far the most productive and can usually replace in- or dis-with adjectives for ad hoc(专门的；专门地) use as in unreplaceable, immovable for irreplaceable and immovable. The difference lies in the fact that words with un- are semantically more absolute and more literally related to the base than those with in-.
2) Reversative or Privative Prefixes(逆反前缀)
de- meaning 'reversing the action, depriving of (剥夺)', a productive affix, as in decentralize(分散), demystify(使非神秘化), dehumanize(使失去人性), deforestation(采伐森林) ; fixed to nouns to form verbs, a characteristic absent from most prefixes as in deice(除冰), defeather(拔毛), debug(排除错误), descale(去除锅垢)
dis- meaning 'reversing the action', with verbs as in disallow(不接受), dispossess(（对土地、房屋等的）剥夺，使失去), disunite(不和，使分离); also meaning 'lacking', with adjectives, e. g. disinterested, discoloured(褪色；变色)
un- same in meaning as for de- with verbs as in unbug(排除错误), unlock(开锁), unwrap(打开，解开); but meaning 'depriving of, releasing from' in limited use with nouns to make verbs, e.g. unseat(使从马上摔下，使失去资格), unhorse(从…卸下马来), unmask(脱去面罩)
It might be noted that prefixes of the second group are a repetition of most of the first set. The justification of a separate category lies in the meaning. More instances of the same prefix entering different groups will occur in the rest of the section.
3) Pejorative Prefixes(贬义前缀)
mal- meaning 'badly, bad' added to verbs, participles(分词), adjectives, and abstract nouns, e.g. maltreat(虐待), malformed(畸形的，难看的), malnourished(营养不良的), malodorous(有恶臭的), malpractice(玩忽职守), maladministration(暴政，乱政)
mis- meaning 'wrongly, astray(误入歧途)', added to verbs, participles, and abstract nouns, e.g. misinterpret(曲解), mistrust(怀疑，不信任), misleading(误导的), misconduct(不正当的行为)
pseudo- meaning 'false, imitation(冒充的)', a productive affix with nouns and adjectives, e.g. pseudo-scientific(伪科学), pseudo-classicism(伪古典主义), pseudo-democratic (伪民主); often used to show disapproval, e.g. pseudo-friend(假朋友), pseudo-parent (假父母)
4) Prefixes of Degree or Size
arch- meaning 'supreme(最高的), most', with human nouns, e. g. archbishop(大主教), archduke(大公), productive usually with pejorative effect, e.g. arch-enemy(头号敌人), arch-hypocrite(伪君子), arch-capitalist (大资本家), arch-rival(夙敌)
co- meaning 'jointly, on equal footing(同等)', productive with nouns and verbs, e.g. cohabit(未婚同居的), codirect(联合领导；共同导演), co-star(联袂主演), co-manager(联合经理人), co-author(合著者)
extra- meaning 'very', productive with adjectives, e.g. extra-large, extra-strong, extra- bright(特高亮度)
hyper- meaning 'extreme', productive with adjectives, sometimes pejorative, e.g. hyperactive(极度活跃的), hypercreative(极富创造力的) , hypercautious(极其小心的), hypercritical(吹毛求疵的，极其苛刻的)
macro- meaning 'large', forming technical terms, e.g. macroeconomics(宏观经济学), macrostructure(宏观结构), macrocosm(宏观世界)
micro- meaning 'very small', the opposite of macro -forming mostly scientific or technical terms, e. g. microcomputer(微电脑), microsurgery(显微外科), microwave(微波), microfilm(缩影胶片), microparticle(微粒)
mini- meaning 'little', productive with nouns, e.g. mini-bus, mini-camera(小型照相机), mini-tour(精致旅游), mini-market(小型市场), mini-bikini (迷你比基尼), mini-crisis (小危机), mini-boom(小型话筒吊杆)
out- meaning 'surpassing(超过)', with verbs, nouns and adjectives to form new transitive verbs, e.g. outswim(在游泳方面超过), outlive(比某人活得长), outwit (智慧超过某人), outclass(比…高一等，大大超过), outnumber(在数量上多于…), outsmart(比…聪明), outbrave(比…勇敢)
over- meaning 'excessive(过多的)', added to adjectives, verbs, and nouns, e.g. over-anxious (过于焦虑), over-protective(过度保护的), over-react(反应过度), overestimate(估计过高), over-indulgence(过于放纵), overweight(超重)
sub- meaning 'secondary, less important', productive in this sense with nouns to form new nouns, e. g. sub-system(分系统，辅助系统，次级系统), sub-heading(副标题), sub-contractor(分承包商；副承包商), sub-committee(小组委员会); also meaning 'beneath, lesser', e. g. subnormal(低于正常的，低能的), subsoil(底土), substandard(不够标准的；在标准之下的), subliteracy(通俗文学，二流文学)
super- meaning 'more than, beyond, very special', productive with adjectives, nouns to form words of the same classes, e.g. supersophisticated(超级复杂的), supermodern (超现代), super-simplification (超级简化), supernatural(超自然的), superhuman (超人), super-hero (超级英雄), superbrain(高智)
sur- meaning 'over and above', added to nouns, e.g. surcharge(超载，追加罚款), surpass(超越，胜过), surtax(附加税)
ultra- meaning 'extreme', productive with adjectives, e.g. ultra-conservative, ultra-intelligent(极端智能的), ultra-civilized(极度文明的), ultra-feminine(极其女性化的)
under- meaning 'insufficient, beneath', productive with verbs, nouns and adjectives, e.g. underpay(不付足够的工资), undervalue(低估), undersurface(水面下的), underground(地下的), undergrowth (发育不全), undernourished(营养不良的), under-developed(欠发达的)
It should be noted that some of the prefixes were already incorporated into words before they were adopted and thus are frequently unanalyzable on a semantic basis, e. g. superficial(表面的), survey(调查), subject(主题), hyperbole(夸张).
5) Prefixes of Orientation and Attitude
anti- meaning 'against, opposed to', productive with nouns, and adjectives, e. g. anti-abortion(反对堕胎的) , anti-government, anti-nuclear, anti-social; also meaning 'preventing, destroying', productive, e.g. anti-bacterial(抗菌的), anti-inflation(防通胀的), anti-freeze, anti-aging(抗衰老); its newly developed meaning ' against traditional characteristics' and 'of or belonging to the hypothetical world consisting of antimatter(反物质)', e.g. anti-hero(反英雄), anti-music(非正统派音乐), anti-theater(反剧场), anti-man(男性反对者), anti-quark(反夸克)
contra- meaning 'opposite, contrasting', e.g. contradistinction(对比的不同), contrafactual(违反事实的),contraflow(反向车流)
counter- meaning 'against, in opposition to', productive with nouns and verbs, e.g. counter-espionage(反革命的), counter-accusation(反指控) , counter-offer(还盘，还价), counterstrike(反击), counter-reform(反改革)
pro- meaning 'for, on the side of ' , productive with nouns and adjectives to form adjectives, e.g. pro-democracy(支持民主的), pro-authority(支持权威的), pro-student(支持学生的), pro-feminist (支持女权主义的).
It should be mentioned that anti- is different from counter- in that the former suggests simply an attitude of opposition whereas the latter implies an action in opposition to or in response to a previous action. A counterattack(反击) can take place only if there has already been an attack. In times of peace, however, there are still a lot of anti-war(反战) people.
6) Locative Prefixes
extra- meaning 'outside', with adjectives, e.g. extra-curricular(课外的), extra-territorial (域外的), extra-marital (婚外的)
fore- meaning 'front part of , with nouns, verbs, and adjectives, e.g. forearm(前臂), forehead (额头)
inter- meaning 'between, among', productive with nouns and adjectives and verbs, e.g. inter-city, interpersonal, interstate, intermarriage, interweave, interbreeding, interplay
intra- meaning 'within', productive with nouns and adjectives to form adjectives, e.g. intra-class(阶层内的) , intra-party(党内的), intra-generation(代内的)
super- meaning 'above' with nouns, e.g. superstructure(上部结构), superscript(写在上边的)
tele- meaning 'distant', e.g. telecommunication(长途通讯), teleprinter(电传打字机), telescope(望眼镜)
trans- meaning 'across, from one place to another', productive with adjectives, nouns
and verbs, e.g. transatlantic(横跨大西洋的), transcontinental(横贯大陆的), trans-world(遍及世界各地的), transplant(移植). The prefix trans- often combines with bound roots to form words as is shown in translate, transmit(传输，传送), transform(转换，改变), transcribe(转录).
7) Prefixes of Time and Order
ex- meaning 'former',productive with nouns, e.g. ex-professor, ex-lover, ex-husband , ex-convict(从前曾被判过刑的人)
fore- meaning 'before', with verbs and nouns, e.g. foreword(前言), forethought(考虑将来，先见), forefathers(祖先，先人), foreknowledge(预知，先见之明)
post- meaning 'after', productive with nouns and adjectives, e.g. post-election, post-independence (独立后的), post-structuralism(后结构主义)
pre- meaning 'before, in advance', productive with nouns, adjectives and verbs, e.g. pre-trial(预审), pre-retirement(退休前), pre-industrial(工业革命之前的), pre-prepared(事先准备了的), pre-adolescent(未成年), prejudge(预判), predetermine(预先裁定)
re- meaning 'again, back', productive with verbs and nouns, e.g. remarriage(再婚), reread (重读), reconsider(重新考虑), redistribution(重新分配)
8) Number Prefixes
bi-, di- meaning ' two' as in bicycle, bilingual, bilateral(双边的), bimonthly(双月的), diameter(直径), dichotomy(二分法）
multi- , poly- meaning 'many' (multi- more productive) as in multi-candidate(多候选人的),
multi-purpose (多种目的), multi-dimentional(多维的), polytechnic (多种工艺的), polysyllabic(多音节的)
semi-, derni-, hemi- meaning 'half' (semi- most productive) as in semi-automatic (半自动的), semi-naked (半裸的), semi-skilled(半熟练的), demigod(半人半神), demidevil(半恶魔的), hemisphere(半球), hemimorphic(（矿）异极晶形的)
tri- meaning 'three' as in triangle, tricolour(三色的), tripartite(三重的)
uni-, mono- meaning 'one ' as in unisex(男女皆宜的), uniform(统一形式的，相同的), unidirectional(单向的),monoculture(单一栽培，单作), monocentric(单极的), monorail(单轨铁路)
9) Conversion Prefixes
Prefixes of this category differ from those in other sections in having little semantic value, their chief function being to effect a conversion(转化) of the base from one word class(词性) to another. They share the same features with suffixes in this respect. English has only three traditional conversion prefixes.
a- added to verbs to produce predicative adjectives, e.g. asleep, awash(与水面齐平的，被浪冲打的) , aglow(通红的，发红的), atremble(发抖的), alive
be- with nouns to form transitive verbs, e.g. befriend(待人如友), bewail(哀悼), begrudge(嫉妒); with nouns plus -ed to yield adjectives, e.g. bewildered(感到困惑的), bejeweled(以珠宝装饰的), beloved(心爱的)
en- (em-) chiefly with nouns or adjectives to create transitive verbs, em- occurring to words beginning with / p, b, m /, e.g. endanger(危及), ennoble(是高贵), enrich (使丰富，使肥沃), embitter(使受苦，加苦味于), empower(授权)
As we have seen before, in modern English a number of other prefixes have this class-changing function such as de-, un-, anti-, inter-, post-, pre-, pro- , e. g. delouse (n to v)(除去…的虱子；除去…的可厌物) , unearth (n to v )(发掘；揭露),anti-pollution (n to a) , inter-library (n to a) (馆际的), post-war (n to a) , pre-revolution (n to a) , pro-conservation (n to a)().
10) Miscellaneous Prefixes
auto - meaning 'self' with nouns and adjectives, e.g. Autobiography (自传), autosuggestion(自我暗示)
neo- meaning 'new, revived', productive with nouns and adjectives,e.g. neo-Liberal(新自由主义), neo-Nazi(新纳粹), neo-expressionism(新表现主义)
pan- meaning 'all, the whole of ', productive with adjectives, e. g. pan-continental (泛大陆的), pan-European, pan-Indian
proto- meaning 'first, original' with nouns, e.g. proto-fascist (原法西斯), proto-coalition (原联合), proto-horse (原马)
vice- meaning 'deputy' freely with nouns, e.g. vice-provost(副宪兵司令), vice-chairwoman(副女主席), vice-governor(副州长)
2. Suffixation
Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to bases. Unlike prefixes which primarily effect a semantic modification (改变) of the base, suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the grammatical function of the base, i.e. the change of the word class with a slight modification of meaning. Therefore, we shall treat suffixes on a grammatical basis as noun suffixes, adjectives suffixes, etc. in contrast to the treatment of prefixes on a semantic basis. By noun suffix or adjective suffix is not meant that the suffixes under discussion are nouns or adjectives but that when these affixes are added to the base, whatever class it belongs to, the result will be a noun or an adjective. For example, -er is categorized (归类) as a noun suffix because all the derived forms from it are nouns whether it is fixed at the end of a verb as in employer or of a noun as in villager. The suffix in the first case will be referred to as a deverbal (由动词转化的) noun suffix while that in the second will be called a denominal (由名词转化的) noun suffix.
1) Noun Suffixes
(1) Denominal Nouns
Concrete: The suffixes of this group are added to noun bases to produce concrete nouns.
-eer meaning 'skilled in, engaged in', e.g. profiteer(投机商), engineer, auctioneer(拍卖人), mountaineer(登山运动员)
-er meaning 'having as dominant characteristic, denizen of '(某地的居民), e. g. teenager, glover(手套贩卖商), Londoner (伦敦人), three-wheeler (三轮车)
-ess meaning 'female' as in empress(女皇), priestess(女祭司), stewardess(女乘务员), hostess(女主人)
-ette meaning 'compact' (小的东西) as in kitchenette(小厨房), dinerette(小宴会), cigarette(香烟); also meaning 'imitation' and 'female', e.g. leatherette(人造革), suffragette(从事妇女参政运动者)
-let meaning 'small, unimportant' as in droplet(小滴), booklet(小册子), starlet(小明星)
-ster meaning 'involved in' as in trickster(骗子；魔术师), gangster(歹徒；土匪), songster(歌唱家)
Abstract: The following suffixes come at the end of noun bases to form abstract nouns.
-age meaning 'measure of, process or state', e.g. mileage(英里数), poundage(手续费), footage(以尺计算长度),storage(储存), wastage(消耗量), coverage(覆盖)
-dom meaning 'state, condition', e.g. Martyrdom（牺牲）, dukedom（公爵爵位）, officialdom (官僚作风)
-ery, -ry meaning 'condition or behaviour associated with' as in slavery, devilry(恶行，残暴), savagery(野性), roguery(流氓行为); also meaning 'place', e.g. bakery(面包店), winery(葡萄酒酿造厂), nunnery(女修道院); also meaning 'collection of ', e.g. jewelry(珠宝), machinery (机械), pottery (陶器)
-ful meaning ' amount contained in', productive as in armful(一抱之量), houseful(一屋子), mouthful , pocketful
-hood meaning 'state, condition', productive, e.g. adulthood (成人期), daughterhood (女儿时期), spinsterhood (独身),widowerhood (寡居)
-ing meaning 'the material of ' as in tubing(管形材料), matting(编织材料), carpeting(毛毯料); also meaning 'activity connected with' , e.g. farming(耕作), golfing(打高尔夫球), cricketing (板球呢)
-ism meaning 'doctrine of, practice of ', productive as in absenteeism (旷课，旷工), consumerism (用户至上主义), terrorism , totalitarianism(极权主义) , ageism (对老年人的歧视), sexism(男性至上主义，性别歧视)
-ship meaning 'occupation, position', productive, e.g. Ambassadorship (大使的职位), governorship(总督的职位), authorship(作者的身份); also meaning ' skill and ability' as in craftsmanship(技能), sportsmanship(运动员精神); also meaning ' relation ', e.g. acquaintanceship (相识), partnership (队友关系), friendship
(2) Deverbal Nouns
The following suffixes combine with verb bases to yield largely agential nouns(施事名词).
-ant meaning 'occupations and participation', e. g. assistant(助手), contestant(竞争者), informant(告密者，通知的人), applicant(申请者); also referring to 'an object or substance', e.g. coolant(冷冻剂), pollutant(污染物), decongestant(解充血药)
-ee meaning ' receiver of the action' as in addressee (收信人), internee(被拘留者), transferee(受让人，承让人),assignee(受让人); also meaning 'doer of the action', e. g. absentee(缺席者), cohabitee(未婚同居者), divorcee(离婚者)
-ent meaning ' a person or thing', e.g. respondent(回答者), correspondent(通信者), descendent (后裔，子孙),dependent(受赡养者)
-er, -or meaning 'doer of the action', very productive, referring to both persons as in commander, photographer, or non-persons as in recorder, stainer()颜料, cooker(炊具), mixer(混合者，搅拌器); with neoclassical bases, the spelling is often -or, e.g. collaborator(合作者), speculator (投机者), elevator(电梯，升降机), escalator(电动扶梯)
Suffixes of the next group added to verb bases to produce largely abstract nouns , denoting action, result, process, state, etc.
-age meaning 'action of, instance of ' as in spillage(溢出量), marriage, linkage(连接), shrinkage(收缩), carriage(马车)
-al meaning 'the process or state of ' as in dismissal(解雇，免职), portrayal(描画), survival(幸存)
-ance meaning 'action, process, state', e.g. performance, insurance, attendance(出席)
-ation , -ition , -tion, -sion, -ion meaning 'process or state of ' or 'product of , institution produced by ', e.g. realization, imagination, addition(增加), protection , commission (委任), decision , operation
-ence meaning 'action, process, state', e.g. adherence(粘着), persistence(坚持), existence, dependence, recurrence(复发)
-ing meaning ' action of ' as in christening(洗礼仪式), wedding; also producing concrete nouns, e.g. building, opening, earnings, savings
-ment meaning 'result of ' as in assessment(估价), puzzlement(困惑), resentment(怨恨)
(3) De-adjective Nouns
-ity meaning 'state or condition' with adjectives of neo-classical or French origin, e.g. productivity, intensity, superiority; productive with adjectives ending in -able, -al, -ar, e.g. respectability, morality, popularity, familiarity
-ness meaning 'state or quality', productive, e.g. youthfulness, permissiveness(放纵主义，极端自由主义), up-to-dateness(直到现在)
According to Quirk et al (1985), occasionally both -ity and -ness can be added to the same base to form new words, with the former more lexicalized (词汇化的) and more closely related to the meaning of the base than the latter, for example, sensible—sensibility— sensibleness, pompous—pomposity—pompousness(壮观，浮华，虚夸). It is also noticeable that the formations in -ness exist together with other deadjectival (由形容词变来的) formations, e. g. justness— justice , appropriateness — appropriacy (合适性), normalness — normality — normalcy(正常状态；常态), infiniteness—infinitude—infinity(无限，无穷).
(4) Noun and Adjective Suffixes
A small number of suffixes, when added to bases related to human beings or nationality names, yield words that can be used both as nouns and adjectives.
-ese meaning 'member of, language of', e.g. Chinese, Lebanese（黎巴嫩人）, Maltese(马耳他人); also meaning 'style of', productive as in journalese(新闻文体), officialese(官样文章，公文用语), Johnsonese(约翰逊式的问题), Americanese(美国英语)
-an, -ian meaning 'citizen and language of ' as in Australian, Glaswegian(格拉斯哥的), Cambodian(柬埔寨人（语）); also meaning 'adherent to(追随), relating to', e.g. Darwinian(达尔文的), Chomskyan(乔姆斯基的) , Shakespearian, Elizabethan
-ist meaning 'adherent to beliefs and behaviour', productive as in methodist(卫理公会教派的), loyalist(忠诚的人，反对独立者), racist(种族主义者), socialist; also meaning 'occupations or study', e.g. artist, psychiatrist(精神科医生), environmentalist, violinist, bassist(低音歌手，低音乐器演奏者)
- ite meaning 'adherent to, member of', productive, e. g. Chomskyite(追随乔姆斯基的人), Trostskyite(追随托洛茨基者), Thatcherite(追随撒切尔的人)
Some bases can take -ist, -ian and -ite equally as Quirk et al note (ibid). The first would suggest greatest commitment (认可) to the views or theory concerned (e. g. 'He is an out-and-out Darwinist. '); the second would be more neutral and thus gradable (e.g. ' Isn' t that approach rather Darwinian!') and the third tends to be disparaging and would be used chiefly by those who are not themselves adherents (e. g. 'He is a Darwinite' rather than 'I am a Darwinite'.).
2) Adjective Suffixes
(1) Denominal Suffixes
-ed added to those noun(adj)-plus-noun compounds, e.g. pear-shaped(梨形的), blue-eyed (蓝眼睛的，白种人的), giant-sized(巨人型的)②
-ful meaning 'full of, providing', e.g. merciful, tactful(机智的), graceful, dutiful
-ish meaning 'somewhat like, approximately', productive, e.g. monkeyish(猴子似的), snobbish (势利的), nightmarish (噩梦般的), coquettish (卖弄风情的), sixtyish （像六十的）; also referring to ' language and nationality' as in Polish , Jewish ; also very productive with adjective bases in the sense of 'somewhat', e.g. wettish(有点湿) , thinnish(较瘦的), plumpish(较丰满的)
-less meaning 'without', productive, e.g. nameless(无名的), brainless(无头脑的), humorless; also meaning'unmeasurable', e.g. priceless, timeless
-like meaning 'like', productive, e.g. animal-like, lady-like, dreamlike
-ly meaning ' having the qualities of' as in soldierly(英勇的), friendly, cowardly(胆怯的), deathly(死一般的); also meaning 'frequency', e.g. hourly, fortnightly(每两周的)
-y meaning 'somewhat like, characterized by', productive, e.g. flowery(多花的，绚丽的), smoky, bloody, grassy; also productive with names to show affection or familiarity as in doggy(小狗), Johnny, birdy (小鸟)
Where -like and -ish occur with the same base, the latter is relatively pejorative and less literally close to the meaning of the base, for example, manly, manlike, mannish, the first referring to the physical or heroic qualities of a man, the second applied to nonhumans, and the third implying unwelcome masculine attributes(男性特征) usually in a woman.
-al, -ial, -ical meaning 'relating to', productive, e. g. residential, sentimental(感伤的), philosophical
-esque meaning 'having the properties of, productive with names of famous writers, composers or painters, e. g. Beethovenesque(贝多芬风格的), Dantesque(但丁式的), Chaplinesque
-ic meaning 'resembling, involving, connected with', e.g. patriotic(爱国的), poetic, bureaucratic(官僚政治的);productive with nouns ending in -ist, e.g. chauvinistic(沙文主义的), pessimistic(悲观的), traditionalistic(传统主义者的)
-ous, -eous, -ious, -uous meaning ' having a particular quality', e.g. sensuous(感觉上的), marvelous (不可思议的), courageous , anxious
It is worth noting that both -ic and -ical can be affixed to the same base in some cases, but differ in meaning:
classic (great, memorable) (经典的) classical (of Latin and Greek)(古典的)
comic (of comedy) (喜剧的) comical (funny)(滑稽的，好笑的)
historic (important in history) (历史上有名的) historical (of history)(历史上的)
economic (in the economy) (经济学的) economical (money-saving)(节约的)
electric (powered by electricity) (导电的，电动的) electrical (of electricity) (有关电的)
(2) Deverbal Suffixes
-able, -ible showing 'possibility', productive, e.g. washable, admirable, identifiable(可辨认的), convertible(可改变的), permissible
-ative, -ive, -sive as in talk—talkative(健谈的), affirm—affirmative(肯定的), act—active, decide—decisive(果断的), expand—expansive广阔的, a change of sound notable in words with different endings.
3) Adverb Suffixes
-ly meaning 'in ... manner, to a ... degree', productive as in gradually, seriously; with words ending in -ic, -al should be inserted, e. g. scientific— scientifically except public—publicly; advisable to avoid adjective ending in -ly, e.g. * cowardlily
-ward, -wards showing 'direction', productive with nouns and adverbs of direction, e.g. homewards , downward , skyward(向天空的)
-wise meaning 'in ... manner', productive as in ostrich-wise(鸵鸟式的), sleep-walker-wise(梦游式的); also productive in the sense of 'as far as ... concerned', e. g. percentage-wise(就百分数而言) , calorie-wise(就卡路里而言), education-wise(就教育而言)
4) Verb Suffixes
-ate meaning 'give or make or become', e.g. originate, validate(使有效), hyphenate(以连字符连接)
-en meaning 'make or become' with nouns or adjectives, e.g. strengthen, heighten , flatten , dampen(使潮湿，使沮丧)
-ify, -fy meaning 'make, endow with(赋予)' as in solidify(使凝固), glorify(是壮丽), amplify (放大)
-ize, -ise meaning 'involving or related to', productive with nouns and adjectives, e.g. symbolize(作为…的象征), fantasize(梦想), institutionalize(使制度化或习俗化), visualize; -ise confined to British use.
In modern English, there are some seemingly productive vogue affixes like -nik, which yield quite a few words such as folknik(喜欢民乐的人), peacenik(献身于和平的人), jazznik(爵士乐迷), cinenik(电影迷), no-goodnik(无用的人), citynik(都市迷). But most of them, if not all, are still considered slang and have not entered popular use yet. Therefore, they are not listed here.
