案例
姓 名: 刘妍平 专 业：英语 年级、班级：12级3班
学 号：12301009 作业日期：2013.08.27
章 节：Chapter 2 the Upheaval in Western Christendom
作业要求：Write a summary of the French Revolution in about 800 -1000 words in English.
Summary
The Upheaval In Western Christendom
In the fourteenth century, about half the population of Europe was wiped out abruptly. The great killer was the Black Death. It spread so fast and wide, almost covered the whole Europe. Besides, sporadic healthy people also died of poverty, lack of food and famines. Trade and exchange were obstructed. The living were preoccupied with the burial of the dead and with fears for the future. During this time, people in Europe pray to God all the time, but it didn’t work. So gradually, they queried the church and papal, they didn’t believe in God anymore and found the corruption of the church. They lived through a dark time. They realized that they can only believe in themselves. At the meantime, the town of Italy so long as trade converged in the Mediterranean, were the biggest and busting of all the towns were independent city-states, There was no king to build up, a government, for Italy as a whole. Popes influence Rome was unimportant. Merchants are very rich. They only believe in themselves. So Renaissance and many aspects in daily life. In the later Middle Ages, people do more writing than before, so literature were very popular at that time. New class writers began to appeal humanism: trust yourself. It contributed to literature and scholarship a lot. Schooling, manners and family life no longer the same as middle ages. Young people were trained also for a more civilized deportment in everyday social living. Renaissance education and manners, as taught in the new schools and academies of the era, thus developed within the distinctive patterns of family life in the Italian cities. After renaissance in Italy, it spread over the whole Europe, especially The Great Britain. Writers like Shakespeare became famous, they denied God and affirmed the divinity of man. Renaissance had a great impact on England, France and Spain. They build the new monarchy.
When the New Monarchy came to England with the dynasty of the Tudors, Christendom had been divided into two parts. Some people become Protestants, political and social discontents increased. Three former started their religion reform in their own country. Martin Luther in Germany, he listed 95 corrections of the religious doctrine. His “justification by faith” turned out to be great success. This held that what “justifies” a person is not what the church knew as “works” (prayer, alms, the sacraments, holy living) but “faith alone,” an inward bent of spirit given to each soul directly by God. Lutheranism, or at least anti-Romanism, quickly swept over Germany, assuming the proportions of a national revolution. Calvin in France, he agreed Luther’s fundamental religious ideas, such as justification by faith not by works. They rejected transubstantiation, but where Luther insisted that God was somehow actually present in the bread and wine used in the service, Calvin and his follower tended more to regard it as a pious act of symbolic or commemorative character. Calvinists refused to recognize the subordination of church to state, or the right of any government－king, parliament, or civic magistracy－to lay down laws for religion. On the contrary, they insisted that true Christians, the elect or godly, should Christianize the state. It was the most resolute spirits that were attracted to Calvinism. Calvinists, in all countries ,were militant, uncompromising, perfectionist－or Puritan, as they were called first in England and later in America. Anyway, they both create their own Protestantism. The reformation in English was rather peculiar because the reformer was the king, Henry VIII. Neither is he a theologian nor a refugee who suffered a lot. He led the government broke with the Roman church before adopting Protest principles. Why did he long for a reformation? Because he want a male heir, but he didn’t had a male heir. He wanted to divorce with his wife. However ,his wife Catherine objected, so he wanted to change the church so he can get divorced. He appointed a new archbishop of Canterbury, repudiated the Roman connection, secured the annulment of his earlier marriage, and married the youthful Anne Boleyn. After Anne Boleyn gave birth to Elizabeth I, she died. So Henry VIII married the third wife. She was the mother of Henry VIII’s first son, Edward VI.So after Henry VIII dead, Edward VI became the king. However, Edward VI died in 1553 and was succeeded by his much older half－sister, Mary,the daughter of Catherine of Aragon and a devout Roman Catholic whose whole life had been embittered by the break with Rome.Mary tried to re-Catholic England, but she actually made Catholicism more unpopular with the English. Under Mary, moreover, some three hunred persons were burned at the stske, as heretics, in public mass executions. So this is why she is known as “Bloody Mary”. In any event, Mary did not live long. She was succeeded in 1558 by Henry VIII’s younger daughter.Elizabeth.Under Elizabeth the English became Protestant, gradually and in their own way.
In this mixture of decline and revival, of religious revolution and secularization, medieval Christendom evolved into the social, political, and cultural world of early modern Europe.
姓 名: 韩 雪 专 业： 英 语 年级、班级：12级3班
学 号：12301088 作业日期：2013.09.09
章 节：Chapter 2 The Upheaval in the western Christendom, 1300-1560
作业要求：Write a summary of the French Revolution in about 800 -1000 words in English.
（体例说明：中文字体为宋体，英文为Arail，五号字，行距1.5倍）
summary
The Upheaval in Western Christendom, 1300-1560
In the fourteen century, the total European population probably fell from roughly 70nmillion in 1300 to about 45 million in 1400.Some died in sporadic local famines that began to appear after 1300.The great killer, however, was the plague, or Black Death, which first struck Europe in 1348. It disrupted marriage and family life and made it impossible for many years for Europe to regain the former level of population; in some places whole villages disappeared; trade and exchange were obstructed and the most effect for the people is fear.
In this situation, many of the poor could found no work or took to vagabondage and begging. The government and the upper classes, acting through governments, attempted to control wages and prices. Rebellions of workers broke out in various towns. The first rebellion is “jacqueries” in France, the next one happened in England is a similar large-scale uprising in 1381 came to be known as War Tyler’s rebellion. The Landowners, or feudal class, in order to get the work done on their manors and assure their own income, had to offer more favorable terms. In this case, over the years many of the these peasant holding became hereditary and the value of money decreased.
The kings also, who had been building up their position against the church and the feudal lords since the eleventh century, found their problems complicated by the Black Death.
In 1300, the church of the High Middle Ages,centralized in the papacy, stood at its zenith.But the church was weakened.The papacy, being at the top, was the most liable to this danger. It became “corrupt”, so at the beginning of the “Babylonian Captivity”, the rest of Europe regarded the popes at Avignon throughout the church as tools of France. The papacy lost much of its prestige as a universal institution,
In 1409, such a church council met at Pisa. All parts of the Latin West were represented. The council declared both reigning popes deposed and obtained the due election of another,and the three aims are: to ens the now threefold schism, to extirpate heresy, and to reform the church “in head and members.” or form top to bottom.
Gradually the popes prevailed over the councils. The conciliar movement was greatly weakened for Christendom as a whole when the powerful French element secured its aims by a local national arrangement.
In the fifteenth century, the Renaissance marked a new era in thought and feeling, by which Europe and its institution were long run to be transformed.At the same time, other fields of thought and expression were first cultivated.
The Renaissance was born in Italy, and the Italian influence in other countries, in these respect, remained very strong for at least 200 years.The effect was related to moral and civic questions about what human being ought to be or not to be, with the answers reflected in matters of state, style, propriety, decorum, personal character, and education. The literary movement in Renaissance Italy is called humanism because of the rising interest in human letters, litterae humaniores.Much of it had been of a technical character,as in theology, philosophy, or law; some of it had been meant to convey information, as in chronicles, histories, and description of the physical world. In the north, Christian humanists studied the Hebrew and Greek texts of the Bible and read the Church Fathers, both Latin and Greek, in order to deepen their understanding of Christianity and to restore its moral vitality. In addition to religious humanistic scholarship, a genuine religious impulse also remained alive.Germany in the fourteen century produced a series of mystics.More typical mystics were Meister Eckhart and Thomas a Kempis.
The new monarchs offered the institution of monarchy as a guarantee of law and order. For the meantime, in Europe outside Italy, kings were actively building the institutions of the modern state. The new Monarchy countries include England, France, and Spain.
The New Monarchy came to England with the dynasty of the Tudors. After gaining the throne by force, put an end to the civil turbulence of the Wars of the Roses.
Because of the political and social discontents, the protestant reformation created. Three men were contribute to it.
The first who successful defied the older church authorities was Martin Luther.He was a monk, and he is a Germany ,and an earnest one , until he was almost 40 years old. He thought his life by himself, and searched in the Bible, after which he put forward “justification by faith”, including 95 theses, meanwhile, German prince was for it. Thus, “Protestant” came to the world.
The next one is Calvin, who is a French. At the age of 24, he joined forces with the religious revolutionaries of whom the best known was then Luther.
The last one is Henry VIII. Henry VIII prided himself on his orthodoxy. There are three reasons why he had reformation.First, he wanted request church; second, the king had no male heir; the last reason is the English political is unsteady because of the War of the Roses. So he appointed a new archbishop, and married his 5 wives.
