Extension of Meaning, Narrowing of Meaning, Elevation of Meaning, Degradation of Meaning, Transference of Meaning, Euphemism

Extension of Meaning  词义的扩大

Generalization of Meaning

It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and often less definite concept. 一个原本具有特殊意义的单词的词义被延伸，范围扩大，从而指代一种普遍意义语义变化过程。

 

Manuscript

(original) Handwriting( writing by hand only)  (手稿)

(present) Any author’s writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer or a word-processor (原稿)

Salary

(original) a sum of money given to Roman soldiers to enable them to buy salt (政府按时发给古罗马军人一些买盐的钱)

(present) fixed payment made by employer at regular intervals to employees (薪水)

Generalization of meaning is also found in many technical terms, which are confined to specialized use.

Allergic

(original) too sensitive to medicine 患过敏症的

(present) averse or disinclined to 反感的；厌恶的

Alibi

(original) a legal term signifying “the plea that the accused is not at the place when the crime is committed” (被告人不在犯罪现场的证明)

(present) excuse (借口)

Words commonized from proper names have experienced the same process.

 Sandwich

Sandwiched between this door and a window is a giant refrigerator.

More examples: lynch, vandal

The changes in meaning are gradual, and words are not changed in a day.

Lady  (the hostess --- noblewoman --- well-cultivated woman --- woman)

an old lady or elderly lady, a sales lady, a cleaning lady, lady’s room, a lady novelist, lady guests

 

Narrowing of Meaning词义的缩小

It is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrow or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in present-day English. 把词义范围较广的词缩小，表示特指，即过去具有普遍意义的词变化后，现在仅仅表达特殊意义。

When a common word is turned into a proper noun, the meaning is narrowed accordingly.

“The City” means “the business center of London”

“The Prophet” stands for “Mohammed”

For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original, usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the whole. Such adjectives have thus taken on specialized meanings.

a general = a general officer

an editorial = an editorial article

Some material nouns are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more specific sense.

silver                 silver dollar

   glass                a cup-like container or a mirror

   iron                  device for smoothing clothes

Both extension and narrowing of meaning are talking about the changes in conceptual meaning. Next we will talk about the changes in associative meaning.

Elevation of Meaning 词义的升华

It is the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance.

Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant. 词义的升华指词由贬义或中性转变为褒义。即，有些词在历史上表示“卑微、下贱”之义，随着时间的推移转为“惬意的，愉快的”。

Nice

Ignorant --- foolish --- delightful, pleasant

Marshal

A keeper of horses --- a high ranking army officer

Constable

A keeper of horses --- a policeman

 

Degradation of Meaning 词义的降格

It is a process whereby words of good origin or affective neutrality fall into ill reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense. 这是一个词由原先表示中性意义或褒义转为表示贬义的过程。

Silly

Blessed and happy--- innocent----simple or simple-minded ----foolish

Sad

Full, satisfied, contented ----- calm ------ serious ----sorrowful

 

Transference of Meaning 词义的转移

Some words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean something else have experienced the process of semantic transfer, known as transference or transfer of meaning. 有些词原指称某些事物，后来发生变化，转为指称另外的事物，就是词义的转移。

Types of transference

Associated Transfer 联想转移

This is what is commonly known as figurative extension of meaning. e.g.

The lip of a wound 伤口的边缘

The tongues of fire

The foot of a mountain

 

Transfer between Abstract and Concrete Meanings 抽象含义与具体意义间的转移

Abstract to concrete meaning

Room formerly meant “space” as in “There is no room in the car”. Now it has developed a concrete meaning as in “This flat has three rooms”.

Concrete to abstract meaning

Grasp

(original)A firm hold with the hands and arms 

(present)The power or ability to understand

 

Transfer Between Subjective and Objective Meanings 主观意义和客观意义间的转移

Some words were formerly used subjectively but later shifted to an objective use, and the subjective meaning was totally lost. 

 

Synesthesia 通感

This kind of transfer takes place between words of sensation. That is, words usually associated with one sense are used to describe another sense. E.g 

Clear-sounding (from sight to hearing)

Warm colors (from touch to sight)

Sweet voice/music (from taste to hearing)

 

Euphemism 委婉语

When people use euphemisms there is a semantic change involved as the expressions used often have little to do with the referents.

Restroom, bathroom, lounge, John, convenience, comforts room and powder room are all euphemistic terms for “toilet” which itself is a euphemistic term.

Euphemistic terms are found used in every aspect of society.