Walt Whitman (1819–1892)

    Walter "Walt" was an American poet, essayist and journalist. A humanist, he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism and realism, incorporating both views in his works. Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon, often called the father of free verse. His work was very controversial in its time, particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass, which was described as obscene for its overt sexuality. 

    Born on Long Island, Whitman worked as a journalist, a teacher, a government clerk, and – in addition to publishing his poetry – was a volunteer nurse during the American Civil War. Early in his career, he also produced a temperance novel, Franklin Evans (1842). Whitman's major work, Leaves of Grass, was first published in 1855 with his own money. The work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic. He continued expanding and revising it until his death in 1892. After a stroke towards the end of his life, he moved to Camden, New Jersey, where his health further declined. He died at age 72 and his funeral became a public spectacle. 

    Whitman's sexuality is often discussed alongside his poetry. Though biographers continue to debate his sexuality, he is usually described as either homosexual or bisexual in his feelings and attractions. However, there is disagreement among biographers as to whether Whitman had actual sexual experiences with men. Whitman was concerned with politics throughout his life. He supported the Wilmot Proviso and opposed the extension of slavery generally. His poetry presented an egalitarian view of the races, and at one point he called for the abolition of slavery, but later he saw the abolitionist movement as a threat to democracy. 

Early life 

     Walter Whitman was born on May 31, 1819, in West Hills, Town of Huntington, Long Island, to parents with interests in Quaker thought, Walter and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman. The second of nine children, he was immediately nicknamed "Walt" to distinguish him from his father. Walter Whitman Sr. named three of his seven sons after American leaders: Andrew Jackson, George Washington, and Thomas Jefferson. The oldest was named Jesse and another boy died unnamed at the age of six months. The couple's sixth son, the youngest, was named Edward. At age four, Whitman moved with his family from West Hills to Brooklyn, living in a series of homes, in part due to bad investments. Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy, given his family's difficult economic status. One happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by the Marquis de Lafayette during a celebration in Brooklyn on July 4, 1825. 

     At age eleven Whitman concluded formal schooling. He then sought employment for further income for his family; he was an office boy for two lawyers and later was an apprentice and printer's devil for the weekly Long Island newspaper the Patriot, edited by Samuel E. Clements. There, Whitman learned about the printing press and typesetting. He may have written "sentimental bits" of filler material for occasional issues. Clements aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse of Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head. Clements left the Patriot shortly after, possibly as a result of the controversy. 

Early career 

     The following summer Whitman worked for another printer, Erastus Worthington, in Brooklyn. His family moved back to West Hills in the spring, but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner, editor of the leading Whig weekly newspaper the Long-Island Star. While at the Star, Whitman became a regular patron of the local library, joined a town debating society, began attending theater performances, and anonymously published some of his earliest poetry in the New York Mirror. At age 16 in May 1835, Whitman left the Star and Brooklyn. He moved to New York City to work as a compositor though, in later years, Whitman could not remember where. He attempted to find further work but had difficulty in part due to a severe fire in the printing and publishing district and in part due to a general collapse in the economy leading up to the Panic of 1837. In May 1836, he rejoined his family, now living in Hempstead, Long Island. Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838, though he was not satisfied as a teacher. 

      After his teaching attempts, Whitman went back to Huntington, New York to found his own newspaper, the Long Islander. Whitman served as publisher, editor, pressman, and distributor and even provided home delivery. After ten months, he sold the publication to E. O. Crowell, whose first issue appeared on July 12, 1839. No copies of the Long-Islander published under Whitman survive. By the summer of 1839, he found a job as a typesetter in Jamaica, Queens with the Long Island Democrat, edited by James J. Brenton. He left shortly thereafter, and made another attempt at teaching from the winter of 1840 to the spring of 1841. One story, possibly apocryphal, tells of Whitman being chased away from a teaching job in Southold, New York in 1840. After a local preacher called him a "Sodomite", Whitman was allegedly tarred and feathered. Biographer Justin Kaplan notes that the story is likely untrue because Whitman regularly vacationed in the town thereafter. Biographer Jerome Loving calls the incident a "myth". During this time, Whitman published a series of ten editorials called "Sun-Down Papers—From the Desk of a Schoolmaster" in three newspapers between the winter of 1840 and July 1841. In these essays, he adopted a constructed persona, a technique he would employ throughout his career. 

     Whitman moved to New York City in May, initially working a low-level job at the New World, working under Park Benjamin, Sr. and Rufus Wilmot Griswold. He continued working for short periods of time for various newspapers; in 1842 he was editor of the Aurora and from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of the Brooklyn Eagle. He also contributed freelance fiction and poetry throughout the 1840s. Whitman lost his position at the Brooklyn Eagle in 1848 after siding with the free-soil "Barnburner" wing of the Democratic party against the newspaper's owner, Isaac Van Anden, who belonged to the conservative, or "Hunker", wing of the party. Whitman was a delegate to the 1848 founding convention of the Free Soil Party. 

 Civil War years

     As the American Civil War was beginning, Whitman published his poem "Beat! Beat! Drums!" as a patriotic rally call for the North. Whitman's brother George had joined the Union army and began sending Whitman several vividly detailed letters of the battle front. On December 16, 1862, a listing of fallen and wounded soldiers in the New York Tribune included "First Lieutenant G. W. Whitmore", which Whitman worried was a reference to his brother George. He made his way south immediately to find him, though his wallet was stolen on the way. "Walking all day and night, unable to ride, trying to get information, trying to get access to big people", Whitman later wrote, he eventually found George alive, with only a superficial wound on his cheek. Whitman, profoundly affected by seeing the wounded soldiers and the heaps of their amputated limbs, left for Washington on December 28, 1862 with the intention of never returning to New York.

    In Washington, D.C., Whitman's friend Charley Eldridge helped him obtain part-time work in the army paymaster's office, leaving time for Whitman to volunteer as a nurse in the army hospitals. He would write of this experience in "The Great Army of the Sick", published in a New York newspaper in 1863 and, 12 years later, in a book called Memoranda During the War. He then contacted Emerson, this time to ask for help in obtaining a government post. Another friend, John Trowbridge, passed on a letter of recommendation from Emerson to Salmon P. Chase, Secretary of the Treasury, hoping he would grant Whitman a position in that department. Chase, however, did not want to hire the author of such a disreputable book as Leaves of Grass.

    The Whitman family had a difficult end to 1864. On September 30, 1864, Whitman's brother George was captured by Confederates in Virginia, and another brother, Andrew Jackson, died of tuberculosis compounded by alcoholism on December 3. That month, Whitman committed his brother Jesse to the Kings County Lunatic Asylum. Whitman's spirits were raised, however, when he finally got a better-paying government post as a low-grade clerk in the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior, thanks to his friend William Douglas O'Connor. O'Connor, a poet, daguerreotypist and an editor at the Saturday Evening Post, had written to William Tod Otto, Assistant Secretary of the Interior, on Whitman's behalf. Whitman began the new appointment on January 24, 1865, with a yearly salary of $1,200. A month later, on February 24, 1865, George was released from capture and granted a furlough because of his poor health. By May 1, Whitman received a promotion to a slightly higher clerkship and published Drum-Taps.

      Effective June 30, 1865, however, Whitman was fired from his job. His dismissal came from the new Secretary of the Interior, former Iowa Senator James Harlan. Though Harlan dismissed several clerks who "were seldom at their respective desks", he may have fired Whitman on moral grounds after finding an 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass. O'Connor protested until J. Hubley Ashton had Whitman transferred to the Attorney General's office on July 1. O'Connor, though, was still upset and vindicated Whitman by publishing a biased and exaggerated biographical study, The Good Gray Poet, in January 1866. The fifty-cent pamphlet defended Whitman as a wholesome patriot, established the poet's nickname and increased his popularity. Also aiding in his popularity was the publication of "O Captain! My Captain!", a relatively conventional poem on the death of Abraham Lincoln, the only poem to appear in anthologies during Whitman's lifetime.

      Part of Whitman's role at the Attorney General's office was interviewing former Confederate soldiers for Presidential pardons. "There are real characters among them", he later wrote, "and you know I have a fancy for anything out of the ordinary." In August 1866, he took a month off in order to prepare a new edition of Leaves of Grass which would not be published until 1867 after difficulty in finding a publisher. He hoped it would be its last edition. In February 1868 Poems of Walt Whitman was published in England thanks to the influence of William Michael Rossetti, with minor changes that Whitman reluctantly approved. The edition became popular in England, especially with endorsements from the highly respected writer Anne Gilchrist. Another edition of Leaves of Grass was issued in 1871, the same year it was mistakenly reported that its author died in a railroad accident. As Whitman's international fame increased, he remained at the attorney general's office until January 1872. He spent much of 1872 caring for his mother who was now nearly eighty and struggling with arthritis. He also traveled and was invited to Dartmouth College to give the commencement address on June 26, 1872.

Health decline and death

      After suffering a paralytic stroke in early 1873, Whitman was induced to move from Washington to the home of his brother - George Washington Whitman, an Engineer — at 431 Stevens Street in Camden, New Jersey. His mother, having fallen ill, was also there and died that same year in May. Both events were difficult for Whitman and left him depressed and he would remain at his brothers home until buying his own in 1884. However, before purchasing his own home, he spent the greatest period of his residence in Camden at his brother's home in Stevens Street. While in residence he was very productive publishing three version of Leaves of Grass among other works. He was also last fully physically active in this house, receiving both Oscar Wilde and Thomas Eakins. His other brother, Edward, an "invalid" since birth, also lived in the house.

      When his brother and sister-in-law were forced to move for business reasons, he bought his own house at 328 Mickle Street (now 330 Mickle Street). First taken care of by tenants, he was completely bed ridden for most of his time in Mickle Street. During this time, he began socializing with Mary Oakes Davis – the widow of a sea captain. She was a neighbor to him boarding with a family in Bridge Avenue just a few blocks from Mickle Street. She moved in with Whitman on February 24, 1885, to serve as his housekeeper in exchange for free rent. She brought with her a cat, a dog, two turtledoves, a canary, and other assorted animals. During this time, Whitman produced further editions of Leaves of Grass in 1876, 1881, and 1889.

      As the end of 1891 approached, he prepared a final edition of Leaves of Grass, an edition which has been nicknamed the "Deathbed Edition". He wrote, "L. of G. at last complete—after 33 y'rs of hackling at it, all times & moods of my life, fair weather & foul, all parts of the land, and peace & war, young & old". Preparing for death, Whitman commissioned a granite mausoleum shaped like a house for $4,000 and visited it often during construction. In the last week of his life, he was too weak to lift a knife or fork and wrote: "I suffer all the time: I have no relief, no escape: it is monotony — monotony — monotony — in pain."

      Whitman died on March 26, 1892. An autopsy revealed his lungs had diminished to one-eighth their normal breathing capacity, a result of bronchial pneumonia, and that an egg-sized abscess on his chest had eroded one of his ribs. The cause of death was officially listed as "pleurisy of the left side, consumption of the right lung, general miliary tuberculosis and parenchymatous nephritis." A public viewing of his body was held at his Camden home; over one thousand people visited in three hours and Whitman's oak coffin was barely visible because of all the flowers and wreaths left for him. Four days after his death, he was buried in his tomb at Harleigh Cemetery in Camden . Another public ceremony was held at the cemetery, with friends giving speeches, live music, and refreshments. Whitman's friend, the orator Robert Ingersoll, delivered the eulogy. Later, the remains of Whitman's parents and two of his brothers and their families were moved to the mausoleum. 

  沃尔特·惠特曼（英语：Walt Whitman，1819年5月31日－1892年3月26日），出生于纽约州长岛，美国著名诗人、人文主义者，创造了诗歌的自由体（Free Verse），其代表作品是诗集《草叶集》(Leaves of Grass)。

  1841年 搬到纽约。1855年父亲去世，《草叶集》（Leaves of Grass）第一版。1862年 探望在腓烈德利斯堡战役中受伤的兄弟。1865年 林肯被暗杀，惠特曼的战时诗集 Drum-Taps（后来放到《草叶集》中）出版。1871年母亲路易莎去世。1882年 会见奥斯卡·王尔德，出版 Specimen Days and Collect。1885年 为纪念林肯逝世20周年，作诗《献给那个被钉在十字架上的人》，后收入《草叶集》。1888年 第二次打击。严重的疾病。1891年 草叶集最后一版，1892年3月26日惠特曼去世。

  他在九个兄弟姐妹中排行第二。1823年，惠特曼一家移居到纽约布鲁克林区。惠特曼只上了6年学，然后开始做印刷厂学徒。惠特曼基本上是自学的，他特别喜欢读荷马、但丁和莎士比亚的作品。

  在做了两年学徒以后，惠特曼搬到纽约市，并开始在不同的印刷厂工作。1835年，他返回长岛，在一所乡村学校执教。1838年至1839年期间，他在他的家乡办了一份叫做《长岛人》的报纸。他一直教书直到1841年，之后他回到纽约并当了一名记者。他也在一些主流杂志上担任自由撰稿人，或发表政治演讲。

  惠特曼的政治演讲引起了坦慕尼协会的注意，他们让他担任一些报纸的编辑，但是没有一个工作做的长久。在他担任有影响力的报纸《布鲁克林之鹰》的两年间，民主党内部的分裂使得支持自由国土党的他离开了工作。在他尝试为自由国土办报纸的努力失败后，他开始在不同的工作间漂浮。1841年到1859年间，他共在新奥尔良编辑过1份报纸、纽约2份报纸和长岛四份报纸。在新奥尔良的时候，他亲眼目睹了奴隶拍卖——当时很普遍的事情。这时，惠特曼开始着力写诗。1841年 搬到纽约。1855年父亲去世，《草叶集》（Leaves of Grass）第一版。

  19世纪40年代是惠特曼长期工作的第一个收获期：1841年他出版了一些短篇故事，一年后他在纽约出版了小说《富兰克林·埃文斯》（Franklin Evans）。第一版的草叶集是他自己付费出版的，出版于1855年，也是他父亲去世的那年。但是他的诗集由12篇长篇无标题的诗组成。一年后，在草叶集的第二版，连同爱默生的祝贺信一同出版。第二版有20组诗。爱默生一直企盼着一名新的美国诗人，“现在我在《草叶集》中找到了。”

  在美国内战后，惠特曼在内政部当职员，但是当时的内政部部长詹姆士·哈兰发现他是“讨厌”的《草叶集》的作者后，他把惠特曼解雇了。

  到了1881年的第七版时，由于不断上升的知名度，这版诗集得以畅销。诗集带来的收入使得惠特曼可以在纽约卡姆登买上一间房子。

  惠特曼于1892年3月26日逝世，他被安葬在哈利公墓（Harleigh），在他自己设计的墓碑下面。

Oh Captain!

Oh Captain! My Captain! Our fearful trip is done,

The ship has weather'd every rack, the prize we sought is won,

The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting,

While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring;

But Oh heart! heart! heart!

Oh the bleeding drops of red!

Where on the deck my Captain lies,

Fallen cold and dead.

Oh Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells;

Rise up -for you the flag is flung -for you the bugle trills,

For you bouquets and ribbon'd wreaths-for you the shores crowding,

For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning;

Here, Captain! dear father!

This arm beneath your head;

It is some dream that on the deck

You've fallen cold and dead.

My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still,

My father does not feel my arm , he has no pulse nor will;

The ship is anchor'd safe and sound, its voyage closed and done;

From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won;

Exult, Oh shores! and ring, Oh bells!

But I,with mournful tread,

Walk the deck my captain lies,

Fallen cold and dead.

     《哦，船长，我的船长！》是美国著名诗人沃尔特·惠特曼的作品。诗歌写于1865年，是惠特曼为悼念林肯总统而作。全诗构思精巧，组织严密，语言深沉，字里行间饱含着真挚的情感，表达了诗人对林肯的敬仰与怀念之情。

  惠特曼的诗标新立异，独树一帜。他大胆地运用灵活性极大的诗歌形式，创造了一种糅合口语和修辞，不拘诗行和诗节长短，不拘音节也不押韵的自由诗体，使诗歌彻底地从传统形式的束缚中解放出来。

  《哦，船长，我的船长！》写于1865年，是惠特曼为悼念林肯总统而作。全诗构思精巧，组织严密，语言深沉，字里行间饱含着真挚的情感，表达了诗人对林肯的敬仰与怀念之情。

  本诗由三个诗节组成，各诗节结构统一，句子排列整齐匀称。每个诗节包括四行长句和四行短句。四行短句采用缩进两个字母的格式书写。每个诗节的外形恰似一艘扬帆巨轮的剪影：鼓风的帆由四行长句构成，而四行短句则像是巨轮的船舷。全诗的三个诗节俨然三艘巨轮浩浩荡荡，扬帆远航。这种视觉效果恰好与诗的内容相得益彰。

  诗人通过一系列的意象来揭示主题。他通过巧妙设计，组合乏象群，增强了全诗的艺术感染力。在一、二诗节中，诗人用四行长句描绘出海岸上万众欢腾的场面。“旌旗飞”、“人群”、“花束”这些视觉意象和“呼唤”、“钟声”、“号角”这些听觉意象融合在一起，构成一幅热烈欢庆的场面。继而人又用短句描绘“血滴流泻”、“冷却”这些视觉意象和触觉意象，勾勒出船上令人悲哀的惨状。这种远与近、动与静、喜与悲相互映衬的画面形成强烈的反差，渲染出浓烈的悲剧气氛。诗人这样于乐境中写哀，更使人倍感其哀。在第三诗节中，“双唇惨白”、“没有脉搏”、“没有生命”、“海岸”、“洪钟”等各种意象交织在一起，将凯旋的船长惨遭暗杀与迎接英雄的喜庆场景相互对比，艺术境界恢弘悲壮。在一唱三叹的反复吟咏中，诗人深切地表达了对林肯的悼念之情。

  惠特曼以一名与“船长”朝夕相处的水手的口吻写成此诗，似乎诗人确曾与“船长”协同作战、凯旋，并亲眼目睹船长”遇害的情景。诗人巧妙运用称谓变化来表现亲疏远近、生命和死亡的关系。在第一诗节的长句中，诗人使用第一人称。表示诗人愿与“船长”共同分享胜利喜悦的强烈愿望。在第二诗节中，诗人又以第二人称直接与船长对话。表明诗人无法接受“船长”已经离开人世的现实，“船长”的死似乎只是诗人的梦魇。第二人称的使用准确地表现了诗人思念与哀痛交织的恍惚心境，表达了诗人意欲通过呼唤“唤醒”船长的强烈愿望。在诗人眼中深受爱戴的“船长”依然活在人们心中。在第三诗节中，诗人运用第三人称“他”和“我的”来表示“船长”已离我们远去。诗人不得不接受“船长死去”的残酷现实。