American Literature    TheRomantic Period (1790-1865)

      

     The Romantic Period, one of the most important periods in the history of Americanliterature, stretches from the end of the 18th century to the outbreak of theCivil War. It started with the publication of Washington Irving’s The Sketch Book and ended with Whitman’s Leaves of Grass. It is a great flowering of American literature; It is also called “the American Renaissance”

Romantic Period is one of the most important periods in the history of American literature. When Americans were constructing their country, they also began torealize their differences from their European counterparts. They began to hopeto see an entirely different literature model which expressed American cultures. Great writers of that period captured on their pages the enthusiasm and the optimism of that dream.

Romanticism refers to an artistic and intellectual movement originating in Europe in thelate 18th century and characterized by a heightened interest in nature,emphasis on the individual’s experience of emotion and imagination, departurefrom the attitudes and forms of classicism, and rebellion against establishedsocial rules and conventions. The romantic period of American literaturestretches from the end of the 18thcentury to the outbreak of the Civil War. Itwas an age of westward expansion, of the increasing gravity of the slavery question, of an intensification of the spirit of embattled sectionalism in the South, and of a powerful impulse to reform in the North. In literature it was America’s first great creative period, a full flowering of the romantic impulse onAmerican soil.

1. Theunique characteristics of American Romanticism

Although greatly influenced by their English counterparts, the American romantic writersrevealed unique characteristics of their own in their works and they grew on thenative lands. For examp1e，(1) the American national experience of "pioneering intothe  west "proved to be a rich source of material for Americanwriters to draw upon. They celebrated America's landscape with its virginforests, meadows, groves, endless prairies, streams, and vast oceans. Thewilderness came to function almost as a dramatic character that symbolized moral1aw. (2) The desire for an escape from society and a return to nature became apermanent convention of American literature. Such a desire is particularly evidentin Cooper’s Leather Stocking Tales, in Thoreau's Walden and， later, in Mark Twain’s Adventures of Huckleberry Finn.(3) With the growth of American national consciousness, American character types speaking local dialects appeared inpoetry and fiction with increasing frequency. (4)Then the American Puritanismas a cultural heritage exerted great influences over American moral values and American Romanticism. One of the manifestations is the fact that American romantic writers tended more to moralize than their English and European counterparts. (5) Besides, a preoccupation with the Calvinistic view of origina1 sin and the mystery of evil marked the works of Hawthorne, Melville anda host of lesser writers.

2.Representative writers and their works

Washington Irving(1783-1859) was the first American storyteller to be internationally recognized as a man of letters and the first great prose stylist of American romanticism, and his familiar style was destined to provide a model for the prevailing prose narrative of the future. His first book A History of New Yorkfrom the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty (1809), writtenunder the name of Died rich Knickerbocker, was a great success and won him widepopularity. He is best known for his The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon, Gent(1819-1820), especially in which two short stories Rip Van Winkle and TheLegend of Sleepy Hollow have become American classics. Later he wrote works ofhistory and biographies, such as The History of Life and Voyages of ChristobraColumbus(1828), A Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada and The Alhambra (1832).After that, he spent the rest of his life living a life of leisure and comfort,and writing. The Life of Goldsmith (1840) and a five-volume Life of Washington(1855-1859). He died in 1859.

James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851) is respectfully remembered as a master of    adventurous narrative and as the creator of an American hero-myth. According to a      charming legend, Cooper’s first novel Precaution (1820) was a response to his wife’s challenge to improve on the current British societyfiction, and the failure of this work turned him to historical novels. Later,The Spy, a tale of the Revolution he wrote, became a great success in America and Europe. In 1823, Cooper published The Pioneers (1823), which together with other 4 novels The Deerslayer (1841),The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Pathfinder (1840) and The Prairie (1827)became his well-known Leather-stocking Tales.Cooper went on to write over thirty novels, including exciting adventures ofthe sea like The Pilot. Cooper created the American historical novel usingauthentic American subject.

In general,American Romanticism was a kind of imitation as well as innovation because itappeared under the Western Europe Romanticism and finally it created a uniquestyle of fiction and poetry. American Romanticism embraced the individual andrebelled against the confinement of neoclassicism and religious tradition.American Romanticism created a new literary genre that continued to influence American writers.

    美国浪漫主义时期是指开始于十八世纪末，到内战爆发为止这一段是美国文学史上最重要的时期。浪漫主义文学的基本特征：强烈的主观色彩，偏爱表现主观思想，注重抒发个人的感受和体验。重主观，轻客观和重自我表现，轻客观模仿。 喜欢描写和歌颂大自然。（尤为突出）作者们喜欢将自己的理解人物置身于纯朴宁静的大自然中，衬托现实社会的丑恶及自身理解的美好。重视中世纪民间文学。想象比较丰富、感情真挚、表达自由、语言朴素自然。注重艺术效果。美国浪漫主义文学的代表人物有惠特曼、霍桑、华盛顿·欧文等。

  浪漫主义时期开始于十八世纪末,到内战爆发为止,是美国文学史上最重要的时期。华盛顿·欧文出版的《见闻札记》标志着美国浪漫主义文学的开端,惠特曼的《草叶集》是浪漫主义时期文学的压卷之作。浪漫主义时期的文学是美国文学的繁荣时期,所以也称为"美国的文艺复兴。"

  美国社会的发展哺育了"一个伟大民族的文学"。年轻的美国没有历史的沉重包袱,很快在政治、经济和文化方面成长为一个独立的国家。这一时期也是美国历史上西部扩张时期,到1860年领土已开拓到太平洋西岸。到十九世纪中叶,美国已由原来的十三个州扩大到二十一个州,人口从1790年的四百万增至 1860年的三千万。在经济上,年轻的美国经历向工业的转化,影响所及不仅仅是城市,而且也包括农村。蒸汽动力在工、农业生产上的运用、工厂的建立、劳动力的大量需求以及科技上的发明创造使经济生活得到了重组。另外,大量移民促进了工业更加蓬勃的发展。政治上,民主与平等成为这个年轻国家的理想,产生了两党制。值得一提的是这个国家的文学和文化生活。随着独立的美国政府的成立,美国人民已感到需要有美国文学,表达美国人民所特有的经历:早期清教徒的殖民, 与印第安人的遭遇,边疆开发者的生活以及西部荒原等。这个年轻国家的文学富有想象,已产生了一种文学环境。报刊杂志如雨后春笋,出现了一大批文学读者,形成了十九世纪上半叶蓬勃的浪漫主义的文学思潮。

  外国的,尤其是英国的文学大师对美国作家产生了重大影响。美国作家由于秉承了与英国一样的文化传统,形成了同英国一样的浪漫主义风格。欧文 (Irving)、库柏(Cooper),坡(Poe),弗伦诺(Freneau)和布雷恩特(Bryant)一一反古典主义时期的文学样式和文学思潮, 开创了较新的小说和诗歌形式。这一时期大多数美国文学作品中,普遍强调文学的想象力和情感因素,注重生动的描写、异国情调的表达、感官的体会和对超自然力的描述。美国作家特别注意感情的自由表达和人物的心理描写。作品中的主人公富有敏感激动的特质。注重表现个人和普通人是这一时期作品的强烈倾向,几乎成了美国的信仰。富雷诺、布雷思特和库柏等人的作品对客观自然的描写有强烈的兴趣。富雷诺在"帝国的废墟"主题中对过去情景的描写绘声绘色,布雷恩特对北美五大湖区的史前印第安人描述引人入胜,欧文对哈德逊河传说的巧加利用炉火纯青,库柏的长篇历史小说深入细致。总的来说,美国浪漫主义时期的文学上接英国文学传统,下开美国文学之风。

  虽然美国文学受到外国文学的影响,但这一时期著名的文学作品表现的却是富有美国色彩的浪漫主义思想。"西部开拓"就是一个说明美国作家表现自己国家的恰好的例子。他们大量描述了美国本土的自然风光:原始的森林、广袤的平原、无际的草原、沧茫的大海、不一而足。这些自然景物成为人们品格的象征,形成了美国文学中离开尘世,心向自然的传统。这些传统在库柏的《皮袜子的故事》(Leather Stocking Tales〉、梭罗的《沃尔顿》 (Walden)以及后来马克·吐温的《哈克贝里·芬历险记》(Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn)中都得到了明显的表现。随着美国民族意识的增长,在小说、诗歌中美国人物都越来越明显地操本地方言,作品多表现农民、穷人、儿童以及没有文化的人,还有那些虽然没文化但心地高尚的红种人和白种人。美国清教作为一种文化遗产,对美国人的道德观念产生了很大影响,在美国文学中也留下了明显的印迹。一个明显的表现就是,比起欧洲文学, 美国文学的道德倾向十分浓厚。在霍桑(Hawthorne)、梅尔维尔(Melville)以及其他一些小作家的作品中加尔文主义的原罪思想和罪恶的神秘性都得到了充分的表现。

  美国浪漫主义文学运动足能标炳的是新英格兰的超验主义运动。该运动开始于19世纪30年代的新英格兰的先验主义俱乐部。本来,这个超验主义只是对新英格兰人提出来的。它是针对波士顿的唯一神教派的冷淡古板的理性主义而提的。而后来逐渐影响到全国,特别是在高级知识分子和文学界人士当中影响颇大。超验主义文学的主要代表是爱默生(Emerson)和梭罗(Henry David Thoreau),他们的作品对美国文学产生了很大影响。超验主义"承认人类具有本能了解或认识真理的能力,能够超过感官获取知识"。爱默生曾说:"只有人心灵的尊严才是最神圣的。"超验主义还认为自然是高尚的,个人是神圣的,因此人必须自助。

  这一时期涌现了许多作家,著名的有富雷诺(Philip Freneau〉、布雷恩特(William Cullen Bryant)、郎费罗 (Henry Wads worth longfellow)、娄威尔(James Rassel Lowell)、惠特 (John Greenleaf whitter〉、爱伦·坡(Edgar Allan Poe)、以及惠特曼(Walt Whitman)。惠特曼的《草叶集》(Leaves of Grass)是美国十九世纪最有影响的诗歌。美国浪漫主义时期的小说富有独创性、多样性,有华盛顿·欧文的喜剧性寓言体小说,有爱伦·坡的歌德式惊险故事,有库柏的边疆历险故事,有麦尔维尔长篇叙事,有霍桑的心理罗曼史,有戴维斯 (Rebecca Harding Davis)的社会现实小说。美国浪漫主义作家在人性的理解上也各自不同。爱默生、梭罗等超验主义者认为人类在自然中是神圣的,因此人类是可以完善的,但霍桑和麦尔维尔则认为人们在内心上都是罪人,因此需要道德力量来改善人性。《红字》一书就典型地反映了这个观点。