The Victorian era（维多利亚时代）

      The Victorian era is generally agreed to stretch through the reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). It was a tremendously exciting period when many artistic styles, literary schools, as well as, social, political and religious movements flourished. It was a time of prosperity, broad imperial expansion, and great political reform. It was also a time, which today we associate with "prudishness" and "repression". Without a doubt, it was an extraordinarily complex age, that has sometimes been called the Second English Renaissance. It is, however, also the beginning of Modern Times. 

     The social classes of England were newly reforming, and fomenting. There was a churning upheaval of the old hierarchical order, and the middle classes were steadily growing. Added to that, the upper classes' composition was changing from simply hereditary aristocracy to a combination of nobility and an emerging wealthy commercial class. The definition of what made someone a gentleman or a lady was, therefore, changing at what some thought was an alarming rate. By the end of the century, it was silently agreed that a gentleman was someone who had a liberal public (private) school education (preferably at Eton, Rugby, or Harrow), no matter what his antecedents might be. There continued to be a large and generally disgruntled working class, wanting and slowly getting reform and change. 

     Conditions of the working class were still bad, though, through the century, three reform bills gradually gave the vote to most males over the age of twenty-one. Contrasting to that was the horrible reality of child labor which persisted throughout the period. When a bill was passed stipulating that children under nine could not work in the textile industry, this in no way applied to other industries, nor did it in any way curb rampant teenaged prostitution. 

     The Victorian Era was also a time of tremendous scientific progress and ideas. Darwin took his Voyage of the Beagle, and posited the Theory of Evolution. The Great Exhibition of 1851 took place in London, lauding the technical and industrial advances of the age, and strides in medicine and the physical sciences continued throughout the century. The radical thought associated with modern psychiatry began with men like Sigmund Freud toward the end of the era, and radical economic theory, developed by Karl Marx and his associates, began a second age of revolution in mid-century. The ideas of Marxism, socialism, feminism churned and bubbled along with all else that happened. 

     The dress of the early Victorian era was similar to the the Georgian age. Women wore corsets, balloonish sleeves and crinolines in the middle 1840's. The crinoline thrived, and expanded during the 50's and 60's, and into the 70's, until, at last, it gave way to the bustle. The bustle held its own until the 1890's, and became much smaller, going out altogether by the dawning of the twentieth century. For men, following Beau Brummell's example, stove-pipe pants were the fashion at the beginning of the century. Their ties, known then as cravats, and the various ways they might be tied could change, the styles of shirts, jackets, and hats also, but trousers have remained. Throughout the century, it was stylish for men to wear facial hair of all sizes and descriptions. The clean shaven look of the Regency was out, and mustaches, mutton-chop sideburns, Piccadilly Weepers, full beards, and Van Dykes (worn by Napoleon III) were the order of the day. 

    The "prudishness" and "repressiveness" that we associate with this era is, I believe, a somewhat erroneous association. Though, people referred to arms and legs as limbs and extremities, and many other things that make us titter, it is, in my opinion, because they had a degree of modesty and a sense of propriety that we hardly understand today. The latest biographies of Queen Victoria describe her and her husband, Albert, of enjoying erotic art, and certainly we know enough about the Queen from the segment on her issue, to know that she did not in anyway shy away from the marriage bed. The name sake of this period was hardly a prude, but having said that, it is necessary to understand that the strictures and laws for 19th Century Society were so much more narrow and defined that they are today, that we must see this era as very codified and strict. Naturally, to an era that takes more liberties, this would seem harsh and unnatural. 

     Culturally, the novel continued to thrive through this time. Its importance to the era could easily be compared to the importance of the plays of Shakespeare for the Elizabethans. Some of the great novelists of the time were: Sir Walter Scott, Emily, Anne, and Charlotte Bronte, Anthony Trollope, George Eliot, Oscar Wilde, and, of course, Charles Dickens. That is not to say that poetry did not thrive - it did with the works of the Brownings, Alfred, Lord Tennyson, the verse of Lewis Carroll and Rudyard Kipling. 

     An art movement indicative of this period was the Pre-Raphaelites, which included William Holman Hunt, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Christina Rossetti, and John Everett Millais. Also during this period were the Impressionists, the Realists, and the Fauves, though the Pre-Raphaelites were distinctive for being a completely English movement. 

     As stated in the beginning, the Victorian Age was an extremely diverse and complex period. It was, indeed, the precursor of the modern era. If one wishes to understand the world today in terms of society, culture, science, and ideas, it is imperative to study this era. 

    Ilana Miller is from Santa Monica, California and has written short stories and journals since she was in the third grade. She has traveled all over the world, and has lived in the Middle East before settling back in Brentwood. At this point, she's not sure which one is more embattled. 

    She had spent years working in the clothing business, with lawyers and other kinds of bosses before realizing she couldn't stand being bossed around. She, therefore, decided to teach Junior High School, so that she could start doing the bossing. When she got the hang of it (and stopped being bossed around by the kids) she realized that she was teaching the wrong things (English and Drama). She went back to get a Masters Degree in History at Pepperdine University in Malibu, which was her first love. She remained there as an Adjunct Professor of History for eight years. She also found it alot easier to boss around college students than the junior high variety. 

     Published in historical journals, Ilana is now trying her hand at an historical novel. She originally tried historical romances, but realized that she didn't want to put the romance before the history.

      维多利亚时代（Victorian era），前接乔治时代，后启爱德华时代，被认为是英国工业革命和大英帝国的峰端。它的时限常被定义为1837年～1901年，即维多利亚女王（Alexandrina Victoria）的统治时期。这个时期的大英帝国走向了世界之巅，它的领土达到了3600万平方公里。大英帝国的经济占全球的70%，贸易出口更是比全世界其他国家的总和还多上几倍。与爱德华时代一同被认为是大英帝国的黄金时代。

      亦有学者认为，应将通过改革法案（Reform Act 1832）的1832年视为一个新的文化时期的开端。

      维多利亚女王是第一个以“大不列颠与爱尔兰联合王国女王和印度女皇”名号称呼的英国君主。她在位的63年期间（1837年6月20日~1901年1月22日），是英国最强盛的所谓“日不落帝国”时期，她在位期间直到她去世后，到第一次世界大战开始的1914年，英国都称为维多利亚时代，1914年以后，维多利亚时代结束。维多利亚女王（亚利山德拉·维多利亚，Alexandrina Victoria）（1819年5月24日～1901年1月22日）于1837年继承王位（当时她18岁），英国历史上在位时间仅次于伊丽莎白二世女王的君主，在位时间长达64年。

       1837年，18岁的女王维多利亚登基，新女王在继位之前的日记中写道：既然上帝把我置于这个国家的王位上，我将尽力履行自己的职责。我尚年轻，可能在许多方面缺乏经验，但我肯定，几乎无人像我这样怀着为国为民的良好意愿和真切希望。女王充分实现了自己的诺言：她在其一生中模范地履行了立宪君主的职责，因此深受国民的爱戴；她还是那个时代道德风尚的典范，她是贤妻，又是良母，是典型的大家闺秀，也是优秀的一家主妇。她自己生活严谨，工作刻苦，对别人又充满责任感。在许多国人眼中，她就是那个时代的缩影，她漫长的63年在位时期则是国家繁荣昌盛的顶峰。维多利亚在位时期，被称作“维多利亚时代”，在英国所有国王中，她享有盛誉，这不是因为她做出了什么轰动的事业，而是因为她什么都不做，而仅仅恪守立宪君主的本分，做她那个时代的表率。

     维多利亚文学作为一个时代的产物，自然带有宏大与多样性的特点。它是多侧面而且复杂的从各个角度，包括浪漫的与现实的反映了人民生活中的各种巨大变化，这个时代也诞生了一大批顶天立地的文学巨人。

小说

       这个时期，小说广泛流行，繁荣发展。著名小说家有批判现实主义的狄更斯、萨克雷、勃朗蒂姐妹、哥斯凯尔夫人（1810-1865〉与特罗洛普（1815-1882）等人。这些批判现实主义小说家一方面重新倡导18世纪的现实主义，一方面又肩负起批判社会，保卫人民利益的责任。尽管他们的创作角度与风格各不相同，但共同特点是关心广大百姓的生活与命运，他们为不人道的社会机构、堕落的社会道德、拜金主义的盛行及大面积的贫困与不公深感愤慨。他们作品中对人民生活的真实写照和对社会制度的无情批判唤醒了公众对社会问题与社会发展的意识。在19世纪末还出现了一位勇敢的女性小说家乔治·埃略特与一个不仅揭露批判社会丑恶现象，还大胆向维多利亚传统道德观发起攻击的文学家哈代。

散文

      维多利亚时代还产生了许多伟大的散文家，如托马斯·卡利尔（1795-1881）、托马斯·B ·麦考和j（1800-1859）、马修·阿诺得（1822-lg88）、约翰·亨利·纽曼〈1801一」1890）、约翰·斯图亚特·米尔（1806一1873）、约翰·拉斯金〈1819一1900）以及托马斯·亨利·哈克斯雷（1825-1895）等。其中许多人与批判现实主义小说家一道揭露抨击社会阴暗面，并在意识形态领域具有举足轻重的影响。他们创作了大量重要的历史事件评述、宗教论文、散文及各种主题的演讲稿，同时他们将英国的散文与文学评论发展到一个新高点。当时最有名的散文作品有卡利尔的《法国革命》（1837）与《宪章主义》（1840），麦考利的《英国历史》（1849-1861）拉斯金的五卷《现代画家》（1843一1860）及哈克斯雷的部分演讲稿。

诗歌

       维多利亚时期的诗歌具有风格标新、表达立异的特点，尝试这种改革的诗人有罗伯特·布朗宁，他创造了一种诗体小说，即把小说中对人物的塑造方式引用到诗歌中。这使得诗体小说重点，从单纯对故事的叙述向人物内心世界的探究转变，使得维多利亚时期的诗歌带有心理分析的因素。其余诗人，如丁尼生、马修·阿诺得、爱德华·菲兹杰拉德（1809-1883）、但丁·G ·罗塞提（1828-1882）及他的天才妹妹克利斯蒂娜（1830-1894）、杰拉德·M ·霍普金斯（1844-1889）和阿尔杰农·查尔斯·斯温伯思（1837-1909）都在诗歌改革方面大有尝试，为二十世纪的现代诗歌开辟了道路。

       维多利亚时期文学，真实地反映了时代的现实与精神。其中体现出的高度的活力，脚踏实地的精神，善意的幽默与无羁无绊的丰富联想都是空前的。在所有文学领域，这一时期的作品都为新世纪的到来做好了准备。