Ⅰ. Steps in Writing a Composition

1. Planning a Composition

One should not begin writing a composition without sufficient preparation. Writing is like building. Before beginning to build a house, the workers usually have a plan before them and have prepared enough material. A writer should also work out a plan and collect enough material before he writes the first sentence of his composition.
When a topic is assigned, the student should first try to think of as many relevant facts as he can and write them down on a piece of paper (without caring about the form and order of the items). At the same time, he should try to find a proper thesis or theme. The thesis of a composition is its main point or its central idea. It is the conclusion that should be drawn from the facts to be presented in the composition. After that, he should look at the list of facts again, eliminate those unnecessary or unimportant ones, rearrange them in a logical order, and write an outline.
Suppose the topic assigned is "The School Library". The student might jot down the following points:
A large number of useful books
All kinds of dictionaries and reference books
The reading-rooms spacious and quiet
Newspapers and magazines
The librarians patient and helpful
Closed on Sundays and holidays
A little crowded in the evening
Students leave books on chairs to reserve seats
Very few newspapers from abroad
Students are not allowed to take schoolbags into the First Reading-Room
Seniors would not be able to write their graduation papers without using the library
Teachers go to the library frequently
...
Among the possible theses are:

1) The library is a nice place to work in.
2) The library plays a very important part in a student's life.
3) The work of the library needs improvement.
Once the thesis is formulated, certain facts on the list will become more important than others, while a few may seem irrelevant. After those suitable items are picked out, an outline like the following one may be prepared:

Topic: The School Library
Thesis: The library plays a very important part in a student's life.

Outline:

Ⅰ. A student has to borrow books from the library.

A. He needs reference books for his elective courses.
B. He may want to read novels, stories and plays.

Ⅱ. He reads newspapers and magazines in the library.

A. Many new magazines are on display in the First Reading-Room.
B. There are newspapers from all provinces.
C. Back numbers may be borrowed at the counter.

Ⅲ. He needs the library all the more in his junior and senior years.

A. The library provides him with books for his research.
B. He would not be able to write his graduation paper without using the library

2. Types of Outlines

An outline like the above one subdivides the controlling idea or thesis of the essay into smaller parts, which are then developed into separate paragraphs. Roman and Arabic numerals and letters of the alphabet are generally used to number and order ideas as in the following:

Thesis (controlling idea)

Ⅰ. Introduction

Ⅱ. Main idea

A. Sub-idea
B. Sub-idea
1. Supporting detail
2. Supporting detail
a. Fact 1
b. Fact 2

Ⅲ. Main idea

A. Sub-idea
B. Sub-idea
1. Supporting detail
2. Supporting detail
3. Supporting detail
C. Sub-idea

Ⅳ. Conclusion

There are two commonly used types of outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline. All entries in a topic outline consist of nouns and their modifiers, or their equivalents, that is, gerund phrases or infinitive phrases, whereas the entries in a sentence outline are complete sentences. A topic outline is brief and clear, and it gives an instant overview of the entire paper. A sentence outline, on the other hand, provides a more detailed plan of the paper. Compare the following two outlines for a paper on foreign trade:

A Topic Outline

Thesis: Foreign trade is beneficial to and indispensable for all nations.

Ⅰ. Introduction: the foundation of foreign trade

Ⅱ. The necessity of visible trade

A. Lack of certain commodities
B. Insufficiency of particular items
C. Comparative advantage in certain items
D. Latest innovations and different styles of commodities
E. The importance of a favorable balance of trade

Ⅲ. The necessity of invisible trade - exchange of services between nations

A. Transportation
B. Insurance
C. Tourism
D. Technology

Ⅳ. Conclusion: the purpose of foreign trade and the importance of the balance of payments

A Sentence Outline

Thesis: Foreign trade is beneficial to and indispensable for all nations.

Ⅰ. Introduction: the utilization of different economic resources and the development of different skills form the foundation of foreign trade

Ⅱ. Trade in commodities (visible trade) is necessary between nations.

A. No nation has all the commodities it needs.
B. A nation may not have enough of certain commodities.
C. A nation may sell certain commodities at a profit.
D. Latest innovations and different styles of commodities may make foreign trade necessary.
E. All nations strive to maintain a favorable balance of trade so as to be assured of the means to buy necessary goods.

Ⅲ. Exchange of services between nations (invisible trade) is part of foreign trade.

A. Nations vie in providing transportation for foreign trade.
B. Prudent exporters purchase insurance for their cargoes.
C. Tourism brings a nation huge profits.
D. Technology is also exported and imported.

Ⅳ. Conclusion: the purpose of foreign trade is to earn money for necessary imports and it is important to keep the balance of payments.

The following are a few rules for writing outlines:

(1) Avoid single subdivisions. If there is a major point marked "Ⅰ", there must be at least another marked "Ⅱ"; if there is an "A", there must be a "B", and so on.
(2) Avoid mixing types. A topic outline is written in noun phrases, and a sentence outline in sentences. Do not mix these two types.
(3) Use parallel structures for the headings of the same rank. Make sure subheads of like rank are of equal importance and are related to the heading and arranged in logical order.
(4) Make sure the thesis is a complete declarative sentence in the affirmative; do not use a question, a phrase or a dependent clause.

3. Writing the First Draft

Now that the outline is ready, the writer can begin to write the composition itself. But it would be over-optimistic to presume that he will have no more trouble and will be able to finish the whole thing at one stroke. Most probably he will meet with many difficulties in the process of writing and find it slow and tiring work. He need not be disappointed, though. Even an experienced writer may find it hard to organize and express his ideas well.
It is necessary to write a first draft, in which there should be enough space between lines for future corrections and improvements. While writing the draft, the writer need not be afraid of departing from the outline at one place or another. But he had better stop to revise his outline or work out a new one if he finds his original outline entirely impracticable.

4. Revising the First Draft

This is an important step but it is often neglected. When pressed time, students will start copying the first draft as soon as it is written. Thus there cannot be much improvement.
If possible, a student should write the first draft one or two days before the time when he has to hand in the composition to the teacher. He will then have enough time for revising the draft, and be able to examine it more objectively.
When he is writing the first draft, his attention is focused on turning his ideas into words. It will be only natural that some of his sentences are not very well formed and some of his words not very well chosen. It is also possible that whole paragraphs are not properly organized. At places he may make grammar or spelling mistakes. Revision, therefore, is absolutely necessary. Nearly all good writing is the result of much revision.
While revising a composition, the student should keep in mind that revision does not mean a simple correction of mistakes in grammar spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics. The following checklist may be of help:

Ⅰ. Content: Look at the essay / composition as a whole.

A. What is the topic of the essay / composition? Does the draft fulfill the assignment (e.g. mode of development or type of composition)?
B. Is the thesis clear? Is it supported by enough facts (details, examples, reasons, etc.)?
C. Is there irrelevant material that should be removed?
D. Is the logic sound? Are there gaps in the logic?

Ⅱ. Organization: Look at the arrangement of the material.

A. Does the introductory paragraph lead to the main point of the paper?
B. Does each paragraph have a separate central idea? Does it relate to the essay's main idea or to the previous paragraph? Are there proper transitions between sections? Are the paragraphs arranged in climactic order?
C. Does the concluding paragraph give the reader a clear impression of what the paper intends to say?

Ⅲ. Sentences:

A. Is each sentence clearly related to the sentence that precedes it and to the sentence that follows?
B. Are there unnecessary sentences that may be removed?
C. Are there structural mistakes?
D. Are there wordy and redundant sentences?
E. Is there variety in sentence type?

Ⅳ. Diction:

A. Are there words that are not appropriate for the topic or the style of the whole essay (e.g. too colloquial or too formal)?
B. Are there words or phrases which are directly translated from Chinese but which may mean something different in English?
C. Are there collocations which may be incorrect because they are taken from Chinese (e.g. a big rain)?

The list does not include questions concerning mistakes in grammar spelling, punctuation, and other mechanics, because students are generally mindful of such mistakes.

5. Making the Final Copy

After the draft is carefully revised, a clean final copy has to be made. The student should follow the specifications about the manuscript form that his teacher has given him, or follow the rules of manuscript form given in Part One of the book if his teacher has not given directions to the contrary.
The very last step in writing a composition, a step that should never be forgotten, is to check the final copy. In doing so the writer is likely to find that he has made careless mistakes in grammar and spelling, and he may also want to change a word here and there.